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 Prayagraj ˈpreɪəˌɡrɑːdʒ, ˈpraɪə-, Hindi: pɾəjaːɡɾaːdʒ; ISO: Prayāgarāja, formerly and colloquially known as Allahabad, is a metropolis in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is the administrative headquarters of the Prayagraj district, the most populous district in the state and 13th most populous district in India and the Prayagraj division. The city is the judicial capital of Uttar Pradesh with the Allahabad High Court being the highest judicial body in the state. As of 2011, Prayagraj is the seventh most populous city in the state, thirteenth in Northern India and thirty-sixth in India, with an estimated population of 1.53 million in the city. In 2011, it was ranked the world's 40th fastest-growing city. The city, in 2016, was also ranked the third most liveable urban agglomeration in the state after Noida and Lucknow and sixteenth in the country. Hindi is the most widely spoken language in the city.

Prayagraj lies close to Triveni Sangam, the three-river confluence of the Ganges, Yamuna, and the mythical Sarasvati. It plays a central role in Hindu scriptures. The city finds its earliest reference as one of the world's oldest known cities in Hindu texts and has been venerated as the holy city of Prayāga in the ancient Vedas. Prayagraj was also known as Kosambi in the late Vedic period, named by the Kuru rulers of Hastinapur, who developed it as their capital. Known as Purimtal in ancient Jain scriptures, it is also a sacred place for Jains, as their first Tirthankar, Rishabhdeva attained kevalya gyana here. This was one of the greatest cities in India from the late Vedic period until the end of the Maurya Empire,[citation needed] with occupation continuing until the Gupta Empire. Since then, the city has been a political, cultural and administrative centre of the Doab region.

Akbarnama mentions that the Mughal emperor Akbar founded a great city in Allahabad. Abd al-Qadir Badayuni and Nizamuddin Ahmad mention that Akbar laid the foundations of an imperial city there which was called Ilahabas or Ilahabad. In the early 17th century, Allahabad was a provincial capital in the Mughal Empire under the reign of Jahangir. In 1833, it became the seat of the Ceded and Conquered Provinces region before its capital was moved to Agra in 1835. Allahabad became the capital of the North-Western Provinces in 1858 and was the capital of India for a day. The city was the capital of the United Provinces from 1902 to 1920 and remained at the forefront of national importance during the struggle for Indian independence.

Prayagraj is an international tourism destination, second in terms of tourist arrivals in the state after Varanasi. Located in southern Uttar Pradesh, the city covers 365 km2 141 sq mi. Although the city and its surrounding area are governed by several municipalities, a large portion of Prayagraj district is governed by the Prayagraj Municipal Corporation. The city is home to colleges, research institutions and many central and state government offices, including High court of Uttar Pradesh. Prayagraj has hosted cultural and sporting events, including the Prayag Kumbh Mela and the Indira Marathon. Although the city's economy was built on tourism, most of its income now derives from real estate and financial services.

 Varanasi Hindi pronunciation: ʋaːˈraːɳəsi also Benares, Banaras Hindustani pronunciation: , or Kashi, is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world.The city has a syncretic tradition of Islamic artisanship that underpins its religious tourism. Located in the middle-Ganges valley in the southeastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh, Varanasi lies on the left bank of the river. It is 692 kilometres 430 mi to the southeast of India's capital New Delhi and 320 kilometres 200 mi to the southeast of the state capital, Lucknow. It lies 121 kilometres 75 mi downstream of Prayagraj, where the confluence with the Yamuna river is another major Hindu pilgrimage site.

Varanasi is one of the world's oldest continually inhabited cities. Kashi, its ancient name, was associated with a kingdom of the same name in the first millenium BCE. The Lion capital of Ashoka at nearby Sarnath has been interpreted to be a commemoration of the Buddha's first sermon there in the fifth century BCE. In the 8th century, Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi. Tulsidas wrote his Awadhi language epic, the Ramcharitmanas, a Bhakti movement reworking of the Sanskrit Ramayana, in Varanasi. Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi, including Kabir and Ravidas. In the 16th century, Rajput nobles in the service of the Mughal emperor Akbar, sponsored work on Hindu temples in the city in an empire-wide architectural style. In 1740, Benares Estate, a zamindari estate, was established in the vicinity of the city in the Mughal Empire's semi-autonomous province of Awadh. Under the Treaty of Faizabad, the East India Company acquired Benares city in 1775. The city became a part of the Benares Division of British India's Ceded and Conquered Provinces in 1805, the North-Western Provinces in 1836, United Provinces in 1902, and of the Republic of India's state of Uttar Pradesh in 1950.

Silk weaving, carpets, crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population, as do the Banaras Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals. The city is known worldwide for its many ghats—steps leading down the steep river bank to the water—where pilgrims perform rituals. Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat, the Panchganga Ghat, the Manikarnika Ghat, and the Harishchandra Ghat, the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead. The Hindu genealogy registers at Varanasi are kept here. Among the notable temples in Varanasi are the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva, the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple, and the Durga Temple.

The city has long been an educational and musical centre: many prominent Indian philosophers, poets, writers, and musicians live or have lived in the city, and it was the place where the Benares gharana form of Hindustani classical music was developed. In the 20th century, the Hindi-Urdu writer Premchand and the shehnai player Bismillah Khan were associated with the city. India's oldest Sanskrit college, the Benares Sanskrit College, was founded by Jonathan Duncan, the resident of the East India Company in 1791. Later, education in Benares was greatly influenced by the rise of Indian nationalism in the late 19th century. Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College in 1898. In 1916, she and Madan Mohan Malviya founded the Banaras Hindu University, India's first modern residential university. Kashi Vidyapith was established in 1921, a response to Mahatma Gandhi's non-cooperation movement.

 Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga IAST: mahākāleśvara is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva and is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas, shrines which are said to be the most sacred abodes of Shiva. It is located in the ancient city of Ujjain in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. The temple is situated on the side of the holy river Shipra. The presiding deity, Shiva in the lingam form is believed to be Swayambhu, deriving currents of power Shakti from within itself as against the other images and lingams that are ritually established and invested with mantra-shakti.

Madhya Pradesh has two Jyotirlingas, the second one, Omkareshwar Jyotirlinga, is situated about 140 km south of Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga.

Temple shrines

Mahakal Lok Corridor

Sapta Puri

Dwarka: Dwarkadhish Temple

Ujjain: Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga

Kanchipuram: Kamakshi Amman Temple

Mathura: Shri Krishna Janmabhoomi

Ayodhya: Ram ki Paidi

Haridwar: Har Ki Pauri

Varanasi: Dashashwamedh Ghat

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The idol of Mahakaleshwar is known to be dakshinamurthi, which means that it is facing the south This is a unique feature, upheld by the tantric shivnetra tradition to be found only in Mahakaleshwar among the 12 Jyotirlingas. The idol of Omkareshwar Mahadevji is consecrated in the sanctum above the Mahakal shrine. The images of Ganesh, Parvati and Karttikeya are installed in the west, north, and east of the sanctum sanctorum. To the south is the image of Nandi, the vehicle of Shiva. The idol of Nagchandreshwar on the third storey is open for darshan only on the day of Nag Panchami. The temple has five levels, one of which is underground. The temple itself is located in a spacious courtyard surrounded by massive walls near a lake. The shikhar or the spire is adorned with sculptural finery. Brass lamps light the way to the underground sanctum. It is believed that prasada holy offering offered here to the deity can be re-offered unlike all other shrines.

The presiding deity of time, Shiva, in all his splendor, reigns eternally in the city of Ujjain. The temple of Mahakaleshwar, its shikhar soaring into the sky, an imposing façade against the skyline, evokes primordial awe and reverence with its majesty. The Mahakal dominates the life of the city and its people, even in the midst of the busy routine of modern preoccupations, and provides an unbreakable link with ancient Hindu traditions.

On the day of Maha Shivaratri, a huge fair is held near the temple, and worship goes on through the night.

The Temple has a shrine for Parvati known as avantika devigoddess of ujjain city behind the palki dwar at the back side of Ram Temple.

Mahakaleshwar jyotirlinga

Main article: Jyotirlinga § Twelve most sacred sites

The Mahakaleshwar temple jyotirling is one of twelve total jyotirling, worshipped at twelve temples across India.

According to the Shiva Purana, Shiva once appeared as a fiery column of light, or jyotirlinga, to establish his supremacy over Brahma and Vishnu. The jyotirlinga is the supreme partless reality, out of which Shiva partly appears. It is believed that jyotirlinga shrines are places where Shiva appeared as a fiery column of light. Each of the twelve jyotirlinga sites take the name of the presiding deity - each considered different manifestation of Shiva.[8] At all these sites, the primary image is lingam representing the beginningless and endless Stambha pillar, symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva.

The Mahakaleshwar Temple as a Shakti Peeth

Main articles: Daksha Yaga and Shakti Peethas

Shiva carrying the corpse of Sati Devi

The shrine is revered as one of the 18 Maha Shakti Peetham.

Shakti Peethas are shrines that are believed to have enshrined with the presence of Shakti due to the falling of body parts of the corpse of Sati Devi, when Shiva carried it. Each of the 51 Shakti Peethas has shrines for Shakti and Kalabhairava. The Upper Lip of Sati Devi is said to have fallen here and the Shakti is called as Mahakali.

References in Hindu scriptures

According to the Puranas, the city of Ujjain was called Avantika and was famous for its beauty and its status as a devotional epicenter. It was also one of the primary cities where students went to study holy scriptures. According to legend, there was a ruler of Ujjain called Chandrasena, who was a pious devotee of Shiva and worshiped him all the time. One day, a farmer's boy named Shrikhar was walking on the grounds of the palace and heard the King chanting Shiva's name and rushed to the temple to start praying with him. However, the guards removed him by force and sent him to the outskirts of the city near the river Kshipra. Rivals of Ujjain, primarily King Ripudamana and King Singhaditya of the neighboring kingdoms decided to attack the Kingdom and take over its treasures around this time. Hearing this, Shrikhar started to pray and the news spread to a priest named Vridhi. He was shocked to hear this and upon the urgent pleas of his sons, started to pray to Shiva at the river Kshipra. The Kings chose to attack and were successful; with the help of the powerful demon Dushan, who was blessed by Brahma to be invisible, they plundered the city and attacked all the devotees of Lord Shiva. 

 Jodhpur Hindi pronunciation: is the second-largest city of the north-western Indian state of Rajasthan, after its capital Jaipur. As of 2025, the city has a population of 1.6 million. It serves as the administrative headquarters of the Jodhpur district and Jodhpur division. It is the historic capital of the Kingdom of Marwar, founded in 1459 by Rao Jodha, a Rajput chief of the Rathore clan. On 11 August 1947, 4 days prior to the Indian independence, Maharaja Hanwant Singh the last ruler of Jodhpur state signed the Instrument of Accession and merged his state in Union of India. On 30 March 1949, it became part of the newly formed state of Rajasthan, which was created after merging the states of the erstwhile Rajputana.

Jodhpur is a famous tourist spot with a palace, fort, and temples, set in the stark landscape of the Thar Desert. It is also known as the Blue City due to the dominant color scheme of its buildings in the old town. The old city circles the Mehrangarh Fort and is bounded by a wall with several gates. Jodhpur lies near the geographic centre of the Rajasthan state, which makes it a convenient base for travel in a region much frequented by tourists.

Etymology

The name Jodhpur is derived from its founder, Rao Jodha, who established the city in 1459. Jodh represents Rao Jodha, and pur means city or town in Sanskrit, making it the City of Jodha.

Geography and climate

Jodhpur has a hot desert climate Köppen BWh, due to its very high potential evapotranspiration. Although the average rainfall is around 362 mm 14.3 in, which falls mostly from June to September, it fluctuates greatly. In the famine year of 1899, Jodhpur received only 24 mm 0.94 in, but in the flood year of 1917, it received as much as 1,178 mm 46.4 in. Jojari river, a tributary of Luni River, flows from Banad to Salawas in Jodhpur Urban Area. A riverfront development project for the Jojari River, covering a 35 km stretch within the Jodhpur urban Area, was approved in January 2021 under the Namami Gange programme of the Ministry of Jal Shakti. Previously, the project was overseen by the Jodhpur Development Authority. Pin Code of Jodhpur is 342001 which comes under Jodhpur postal division Jodhpur Region.

Temperatures are extreme from March to October, except when the monsoonal rain produces thick clouds to lower it slightly. In April, May, and June, high temperatures routinely exceed 40 °C. During the monsoon season, average temperatures decrease slightly, but the city's generally low humidity rises, which adds to the perception of the heat. The highest temperature recorded in Jodhpur was on 20 May 2016, when it rose to 48.8 °C 119.8 °F.

 Vrindavan pronounced  ; IAST: Vṛndāvana, also spelt Vrindaban and Brindaban, is a historical city in the Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located in the Braj Bhoomi region and holds religious importance for Hindus, who believe that Krishna, one of the main Gods in Hinduism, spent most of his childhood in this city. Vrindavan has about 5,500 temples dedicated to the worship of Krishna and his chief consort, Radha. It is one of the most sacred places for Vaishnava traditions.

Vrindavan forms a part of the Krishna pilgrimage circuit under development by the Indian Ministry of Tourism. The circuit also includes Mathura, Barsana, Gokul, Govardhan, Kurukshetra, Dwarka and Puri.

Etymology

The ancient Sanskrit name of the city, वृन्दावन Vṛndāvana, comes from its groves of vṛndā holy basil and vana grove, forest.

History

The 17th century Shri Radha Madan Mohan Temple was built by Raja Gopal Singhji of Karauli dynasty

Vrindavan has an ancient past, associated with Hindu culture and history, and was established in the 16th and 17th centuries as a result of an explicit treaty between Muslims and Hindu Emperors, and is an important Hindu pilgrimage site since long.

In contemporary times, Vallabha Charya an Indian saint from 15th century, aged eleven visited Vrindavan. Later on, he performed three pilgrimages of India, barefoot giving discourses on Bhagavad Gita at 84 places. These 84 places are known as Pushtimarg Baithak and since then have the places of pilgrimage. Yet, he stayed in Vrindavan for four months each year. Vrindavan thus heavily influenced his formation of Pushtimarg.

Banke Bihari Temple, Vrindavan

Banke Bihari Temple, Vrindavan

The essence of Vrindavan was lost over time until the 16th century when it was rediscovered by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In the year 1515, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu visited Vrindavan, with the purpose of locating the lost holy places associated with Krishna's life.

In the last 250 years, the extensive forests of Vrindavan have been subjected to urbanisation, first by local Rajas and in recent decades by apartment developers. The forest cover has been whittled away to only a few remaining spots, and the local wildlife, including peacocks, cows, monkeys and a variety of bird species has been virtually eliminated.

Prem Mahavidyalaya

In 1909, Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh established India’s first polytechnic college, Prem Mahavidyalaya in Vrindavan, with the dual vision of promoting education and nurturing nationalist thought. During the inauguration of Prem Mahavidyalaya, Madan Mohan Malviya was also present. Over time, it evolved into an intellectual centre for revolutionary ideas and a meeting place for freedom fighters and Congress leaders.

Prominent figures such as Subhas Chandra Bose, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarojini Naidu, C.F. Andrews, and Jawaharlal Nehru visited the college, leaving their remarks in its visitor book. Mahatma Gandhi spent a day there on 19 April 1915, recording his admiration for Singh’s dedication to the national cause. In 1914, Mahendra Pratap Singh left Prem Mahavidyalaya to seek international backing for India’s independence.

 Mathura Braj pronunciation:   is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located 162 kilometres 101 mi south-east of Delhi; and about 15 kilometres 9.3 mi from the town of Vrindavan. In ancient times, Mathura was an economic hub, located at the junction of important caravan routes. The 2011 Census of India estimated the population of Mathura at 441,894.

In Hinduism, the birthplace of Krishna, one of the main deities in that religion, is believed to be located in Mathura at the Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex. It is one of the Sapta Puri, the seven cities considered holy by Hindus, also called the Mokshyadayni Tirth. The Kesava Deo Temple was built in ancient times on the site of Krishna's birthplace an underground prison. Mathura was the capital of the kingdom of Surasena, ruled by Kamsa, the maternal uncle of Krishna. Mathura is part of the Krishna circuit Mathura, Vrindavan, Barsana, Govardhan, Kurukshetra, Dwarka and Bhalka. Krishna Janmashtami is grandly celebrated in Mathura every year.

Mathura has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of Government of India.

History

See also: Mathura art

Traditionally it is believed that it was founded by Shatrughna after killing Yadava Lavana at the site of Madhuvana. According to Ramayana it was founded by Madhu a man of the Yadu tribe. Later on Madhu's son Lavanasura was defeated by Shatrughna.

Along the Ghats of Mathura c. 1880

General view of the excavations in January 1889 at Kankali Tila, Mathura

Statue of Kanishka I, second century CE, Mathura Museum

Sculpture of woman from ancient Braj-Mathura, c. second century CE

Mathura, which lies at the centre of the cultural region of Braj has an ancient history and is also believed to be the homeland and birthplace of Krishna, who belonged to the Yadu dynasty. According to the Archaeological Survey of India plaque at the Mathura Museum, the city is mentioned in the oldest Indian epic, the Ramayana. In the epic, the Ikshwaku prince Shatrughna slays a demon called Lavanasura and claims the land. Afterwards, the place came to be known as Madhuvan as it was thickly wooded, then Madhupura and later Mathura. The most important pilgrimage site in Mathura was Katra market place, now referred to as Krishna Janmasthan the birthplace of Krishna. Excavations at the site revealed pottery and terracotta dating to the sixth century BCE, the remains of a large Buddhist complex, including a monastery called Yasha Vihara of the Gupta period, as well as Jain sculptures of the same era.

Ancient history

Archaeological excavations at Mathura show the gradual growth of a village into an important city during the Vedic age. The earliest period belonged to the Painted Grey Ware culture 1100–500 BCE, followed by the Northern Black Polished Ware culture 700–200 BCE. Mathura derived its importance as a center of trade due to its location where the northern trade route of the Indo-Gangetic Plain met with the routes to Malwa central India and the west coast. Archaeologists have discovered a fragment of Mathura red sandstone from Rakhigarhi - a site of Indus Valley Civilisation dated to third millennium BCE - which was used as a grindstone; red sandstone was also a popular material for historic period sculptures.

By the sixth century BCE Mathura became the capital of the Surasena Kingdom. The city was later ruled by the Maurya empire fourth to second centuries BCE. Megasthenes, writing in the early third century BCE, mentions Mathura as a great city under the name Μέθορα Méthora. It seems it never was under the direct control of the following Shunga dynasty 2nd century BCE as not a single archaeological remain of a Shunga presence were ever found in Mathura.

The Indo-Greeks may have taken control, direct or indirect, of Mathura some time between 180 BCE and 100 BCE, and remained so as late as 70 BCE according to the Yavanarajya inscription, which was found in Maghera, a town 17 kilometres 11 mi from Mathura. The opening of the 3 line text of this inscription in Brahmi script translates as: In the 116th year of the Yavana kingdom... or In the 116th year of Yavana hegemony Yavanarajya However, this also corresponds to the presence of the native Mitra dynasty of local rulers in Mathura, in approximately the same time frame 150 BCE—50 BCE, possibly pointing to a vassalage relationship with the Indo-Greeks.

 Jaipur Rajasthani: Jayapura, pronounced  is the capital and the largest city of the north-western Indian state of Rajasthan. As of 2011, the city had a population of 3.1 million, making it the tenth most populous city in the country. Located 268 km 167 miles from the national capital New Delhi, Jaipur is also known as the Pink City due to the dominant color scheme of its buildings in the old city.

Jaipur was founded in 1727 by Sawai Jai Singh II, the Kachhwaha Rajput ruler of Amer, after whom the city is named. It is one of the earliest planned cities of modern India, designed by Vidyadhar Bhattacharya. During the British colonial period, the city served as the capital of Jaipur State. After Indian independence in 1947, Jaipur became the capital of the newly formed state of Rajasthan in 1949.

Jaipur is a popular tourist destination in India, forming a part of the Western Golden Triangle tourist circuit along with Delhi and Agra.[14] The city serves as a gateway to other tourist destinations in Rajasthan, such as Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Udaipur, Bundi, Kota, and Mount Abu; it has two World heritage sites, Amer Fort, Hawa Mahal and Jantar Mantar. On 6 July 2019, the city was placed on the World Heritage Cities list. It is also known as the Paris of India. Due to its beauty, C.V. Raman called it the Island of Glory.

Etymology

Jaipur derives its name from Sawai Jai Singh II, the Kachhwaha ruler of Amer, who founded the city in 1727. In Sanskrit, variations of the word pur or pura are commonly used to refer to a city or town. So Jaipur essentially means The City of Jai or Jai's City.

History

Main article: History of Jaipur

Sawai Jai Singh, the founder of Jaipur

Jaipur was founded by the Rajput chief of Kachhwaha clan, Jai Singh II, on 18 November 1727, who ruled the region from 1699 to 1743. He planned to shift his capital from Amber, 11 kilometres 7 mi to Jaipur to accommodate the growing population and increasing scarcity of water.[17] Jai Singh consulted with several architects while planning the layout of Jaipur and established the city based on the principles of Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastra, under the architectural guidance of Vidyadhar Bhattacharya. The construction of the city began in 1726. During the rule of Sawai Ram Singh II, the city was painted pink to welcome Albert Edward, Prince of Wales in 1876. Many of the avenues remain painted in pink, giving Jaipur a distinctive appearance and the epithet Pink City.

In the 19th century, the city grew rapidly and had a population of 160,000 by 1900. The wide boulevards were paved, and its chief industries included metalwork and marble, fostered by a school of art founded in 1868. In August 1981, large areas of the city including the airport, were flooded due to heavy rains from a cloudburst, resulting in the deaths of eight people and much damage to the city's Dravyavati River. On 6 July 2019, the city was named to the World Heritage Cities list.