Hong Kong

 Hong Kong is a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China PRC. Situated on China's southern coast just south of Shenzhen, it consists of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. With 7.5 million residents in a 1,114-square-kilometre 430 sq mi territory, Hong Kong is the fourth-most densely populated region in the world.

Hong Kong was established as a colony of the British Empire after the Qing dynasty ceded Hong Kong Island in 1841–1842 as a consequence of losing the First Opium War. The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and was further extended when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories in 1898. Hong Kong was occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. The territory was handed over from the United Kingdom to China in 1997. Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of one country, two systems.

Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages, Hong Kong is now one of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports. Hong Kong is the world's third-ranked global financial centre behind New York City and London, ninth-largest exporter, and eighth-largest importer. Its currency, the Hong Kong dollar, is the ninth-most traded currency in the world. Home to the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, Hong Kong has the second largest number of ultra high-net-worth individuals. The city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, although severe income inequality still exists among the population. Hong Kong is the city with the most skyscrapers in the world, even though its housing is consistently in high demand.

Hong Kong is a highly developed territory and has a Human Development Index HDI of 0.955, ranking eighth in the world and currently the only place in Asia to be in the top ten. The city has the highest life expectancy in the world, and a public transport usage exceeding 90 per cent.

Etymology

Hong Kong

Hong Kong in Chinese characters

Chinese 香港

Jyutping hoeng1 gong2

Cantonese Yale

Hēunggóngⓘ

or

Hèunggóng

Literal meaning Fragrant Harbour

Transcriptions

 

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

Traditional Chinese

香港特別行政區

香港特區

Simplified Chinese

香港特别行政区

香港特区

Jyutping

hoeng1 gong2 dak6 bit6 hang4 zing3 keoi1

hoeng1 gong2 dak6 keoi1

Cantonese Yale

Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui

Hēunggóng Dahkkēui

or

Hèunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui

Hèunggóng Dahkkēui

Transcriptions

 

The name of the territory, first romanised as He-Ong-Kong in 1780, originally referred to a small inlet located between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Although the source of the romanised name is unknown, it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of the Cantonese or Tanka Cantonese phrase hēung góng. The name translates as fragrant harbour or incense harbour. Fragrant may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odour from incense factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Victoria Harbour was developed. Sir John Davis the second colonial governor offered an alternative origin; Davis said that the name derived from Hoong-keang red torrent, reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed.

The simplified name Hong Kong was frequently used by 1810. The name was also commonly written as the single word Hongkong until 1926, when the government officially adopted the two-word name. Some corporations founded during the early colonial era still keep this name, including Hongkong Land, Hongkong Electric Company, Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation HSBC.

History

Main article: History of Hong Kong

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Hong Kong history.

Prehistory and Imperial China

Earliest known human traces in what is now called Hong Kong are dated by some to 35,000 and 39,000 years ago during the Paleolithic period. The claim is based on an archaeological investigation in Wong Tei Tung, Sai Kung in 2003. The archaeological works revealed knapped stone tools from deposits that were dated using optical luminescence dating.

During the Middle Neolithic period, about 6,000 years ago, the region had been widely occupied by humans. Neolithic to Bronze Age Hong Kong settlers were semi-coastal people. Early inhabitants are believed to be Austronesians in the Middle Neolithic period and later the Yue people. As hinted by the archaeological works in Sha Ha, Sai Kung, rice cultivation had been introduced since Late Neolithic period. Bronze Age Hong Kong featured coarse pottery, hard pottery, quartz and stone jewelry, as well as small bronze implements.

Sung Wong Toi

The Qin dynasty incorporated the Hong Kong area into China for the first time in 214 BCE, after conquering the indigenous Baiyue. The region was consolidated under the Nanyue kingdom a predecessor state of Vietnam after the Qin collapse and recaptured by China after the Han conquest. During the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century, the Southern Song court was briefly located in modern-day Kowloon City the Sung Wong Toi site before its final defeat in the 1279 Battle of Yamen by the Yuan Dynasty. By the end of the Yuan dynasty, seven large families had settled in the region and owned most of the land. Settlers from nearby provinces migrated to Kowloon throughout the Ming dynasty.

Bali

 Bali English: /ˈbɑːli/  Indonesian: 'bali; Balinese: ᬩᬮᬶ is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller offshore islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nusa Ceningan to the southeast. The provincial capital, Denpasar, is the most populous city in the Lesser Sunda Islands and the second-largest, after Makassar, in Eastern Indonesia. The Denpasar metropolitan area is the extended metropolitan area around Denpasar. The upland town of Ubud in Greater Denpasar is considered Bali's cultural centre. The province is Indonesia's main tourist destination, with a significant rise in tourism since the 1980s, and has become the country's area of overtourism. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of the Bali economy.

Bali is the only Hindu-majority province in Indonesia, with 86.40% of the population adhering to Balinese Hinduism. It is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali. Other international events that have been held in Bali include Miss World 2013, the 2018 Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group, and the 2022 G20 summit. In March 2017, Tripadvisor named Bali as the world's top destination in its Traveler's Choice award, which it earned once again in January 2021.

Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, an area with high diversity of marine species, especially fish and turtles. In this area alone, over 500 reef-building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about seven times as many as in the entire Caribbean. Bali is the home of the Subak irrigation system, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is also home to a unified confederation of kingdoms composed of 10 traditional royal Balinese houses, each house ruling a specific geographic area. The confederation is the successor of the Bali Kingdom. The royal houses, which originated before Dutch colonisation, are not recognised by the government of Indonesia.

Etymology

The name Bali is attested in ancient Balinese inscriptions as part of the compound Vāli-dvīpa or Wāli-dvīpa, where Sanskrit dvīpa Sanskrit: द्वीप means island.

One of the earliest attestations of Vāli-dvīpa occurs in the Belanjong Blanjong pillar inscription, dated to Saka year 835 / Phalguna month, under King Sri Kesari Warmadewa  914 .

The precise meaning of the element Vāli Bali in Vāli-dvīpa is not certain. Some hypothesized interpretations include:

That Bali derives from Sanskrit bali बलि, meaning offering, tribute, or sacrifice, thus rendering Bali-dvīpa as Island of offerings or Island of sacrifice.

That Vāli may relate to terms signifying power, or force, or possibly be a phonetic variation  alternation of b and v common in epigraphy, which would suggest meanings such as Island of strength or similar.

References

Damais, Louis-Charles. "Études balinaises: I. La colonnette de Sanur Belanjong Pillar. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. Vol. 47, 1947, pp. 127–130.

Bernet Kempers, A. J. *Monumental Bali: Introduction to Balinese Archaeology & Guide to the Monuments*. Periplus Editions, 1991, pp. 35–36.

History

Main article: History of Bali

Ancient

The Subak irrigation system has existed since the 9th century.

Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian peoples who migrated originally from the island of Taiwan to Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, Brunei, the Philippines, and Oceania. Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west.In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed: the Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Vaishnava, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, and Ganapatya. Each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead.

Inscriptions from 896 and 911 do not mention a king until 914, when Sri Kesarivarma, a contemporary of the Kesari dynasty in the Kalinga Kingdom of ancient India, is mentioned. They also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, being influenced by the Sanskrit and Pali languages, where Buddhism and Shaivism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindok's great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta Gunapriyadharmapatni, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa Dharmodayanavarmadeva around 989, giving birth to Airlangga around 1001. This marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Princess Sakalendukirana appeared in 1098. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150. Jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara appear in 1204.  

International tourism

International tourism is tourism that crosses national borders. Globalization has made tourism a popular global leisure activity. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 500,000 people are in flight at any one time.

In 2010, international tourism reached US919B, growing 6.5 over 2009, corresponding to an increase in real terms of  In 2010, there were over 940 million international tourist arrivals worldwide By 2016 that number had risen to 1,235 million, producing 1,220 billion USD in destination spending. The COVID-19 crisis had significant negative effects on international tourism significantly slowing the overall increasing trend.

International tourism has significant impacts on the environment, exacerbated in part by the problems created by air travel but also by other issues, including wealthy tourists bringing lifestyles that stress local infrastructure, water and trash systems among others.

History

As a result of the late-2000s recession, international travel demand suffered a strong slowdown from the second half of 2008 through the end of 2009. This negative trend intensified during 2009, exacerbated in some countries due to the outbreak of the H1N1 influenza virus, resulting in a worldwide decline of 4.2 in 2009 to 880 million international tourists arrivals, and a 5.7 decline in international tourism receipts.

COVID-19

This section is an excerpt from Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism.

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the tourism industry due to the resulting travel restrictions as well as slump in demand among travelers. The tourism industry has been massively affected by the spread of coronavirus, as many countries have introduced travel restrictions in an attempt to contain its spread. The United Nations World Tourism Organization estimated that global international tourist arrivals could have decreased by 58% to 78 in 2020, leading to a potential loss of US 0.9–1.2 trillion in international tourism receipts.

In many of the world's cities, planned travel went down by 80–90. Conflicting and unilateral travel restrictions occurred regionally and many tourist attractions around the world, such as museums, amusement parks, gyms and sports venues closed down. After March 2020, tourist firms' connectivity has skyrocketed. Restaurants are the most significantly impacted subsectors of tourism, followed by airline firms. UNWTO reported a 65 drop in international tourist arrivals in the first six months of 2020. Air passenger travel showed a similar decline. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development released a report in June 2021 stating that the global economy could lose over US 4 trillion as a result of the pandemic.

Some people have taken advantage of airlines drastically reducing their fares to travel for leisure despite multiple warnings to remain at home, along with two-week self-quarantine requirements upon arrival or return from travel. A number of college students tested positive for COVID-19 after returning from traditional spring break destinations such as the Florida beaches, South Padre Island, and Cabo San Lucas. Many tourism venues such as museums, visitor centers, restaurants and hotels mandated COVID-19 vaccination for their staff or visitors. Research has shown that tourists have varying levels of belief on COVID-19 vaccination in terms of its effectiveness and side effects, which have impact on the preferences of tourists to preference to visit or use vaccinated venues.

Together with a decreased willingness to travel, the restrictions have had a negative economic impact on the travel sector in those regions. A possible long-term impact has been a decline of business travel and international conferencing, and the rise of their virtual, online equivalents. Concerns have been raised over the effectiveness of travel restrictions to contain the spread of COVID-19.

In Cambodia, Foreign arrivals in March 2020 fell by 65% year-on-year. Angkor Wat, usually crowded with thousands of tourists per day, was left almost deserted, with an average of 22 ticket sales per day for the whole Angkor National Park during April 2020. In Vietnam, Foreign arrivals in April 2020 fell by 98% year-on-year.

Tourism in Hawaii went on hiatus. Tourist arrivals in Hawaii were down nearly 100% in April 2020 and its 14-day mandatory quarantine kept tourism low. A number of tourists who came to the state but did not follow the quarantine were arrested. In June 2020, Hawaii had still not set a date for reopening to out-of-state tourism. As of 16 June, the quarantine would be lifted for inter-island tourism. Florida tourism had a year-over-year 11 drop in the first quarter of 2020. During the pandemic in Door County, Wisconsin, hundreds of seasonal residents relocated to the county earlier in the spring than they typically do. In 2020, staycations became popular in the United States, where most people spent their vacation time at or close to home. Most vacation travel was done by car, as gas prices are low and many people prefer to wait to the last minute to plan trips due to uncertainties. There were sharp declines in travel by air, cruise ship, bus and rail.

In Australia, Tourism bodies have suggested that the total economic cost to the sector, as of 11 February 2020, would be A4.5 billion. Casino earnings are expected to fall. At least two localities in Australia, Cairns and the Gold Coast, have reported already lost earnings of more than 600 million. The Australian Tourism Industry Council ATIC called on the Government of Australia for financial support especially in light of the large number of small businesses affected. In March, national travel agency Flight Centre has indefinitely closed 100 stores throughout Australia, due to significantly lower demand for travel. It also suffered a 75 decline in share price, and announced that 6,000 staff would be made redundant or placed on unpaid leave globally.

Switzerland

 Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located at the intersection of Central, Western, and Southern Europe. It is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Austria and Liechtenstein to the east, and Italy to the south. Switzerland is geographically divided among the Swiss Alps, the Swiss Plateau, and the Jura mountains; the Alps cover most of the country's territory, whereas the majority of its 9 million people are concentrated on the plateau, which hosts many of the largest cities and economic centres, including Zurich, Geneva, Basel, Bern, Lausanne, Winterthur, and Lucerne.

Switzerland is a federal republic composed of 26 cantons, with Bern serving as the federal city and the seat of the national government. The country encompasses four principal linguistic and cultural regions—German, French, Italian, and Romansh—reflecting a long-standing tradition of multilingualism and cultural pluralism. Swiss national identity nonetheless remains fairly cohesive, rooted in a shared historical background, common values such as federalism and direct democracy, and Alpine symbolism. Swiss nationhood transcends language, ethnicity, and religion, leading to Switzerland being described as a Willensnation nation of volition rather than a conventional nation state.

Switzerland originates from the Old Swiss Confederacy established in the Late Middle Ages as a defensive and commercial alliance; the Federal Charter of 1291 is considered the country's founding document. The confederation steadily expanded and consolidated despite external threats and internal political and religious strife. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The confederation was among the first and few republics of the early modern period, and the only one besides San Marino to survive the Napoleonic Wars. Switzerland remained a network of self-governing states until 1798, when revolutionary France invaded and imposed the centralist Helvetic Republic. Napoleon abolished the republic in 1803 and reinstated a confederation. Following the Napoleonic Wars, Switzerland restored its pre-revolutionary system, but by 1830 faced growing division and conflict between liberal and conservative movements; this culminated in a new constitution in 1848 that established the current federal system and enshrined principles such as individual rights, separation of powers, and parliamentary bicameralism.

Switzerland has maintained a policy of armed neutrality since the 16th century and has not fought an international war since 1815. It joined the Council of Europe in 1964 and the United Nations in 2002, pursuing an active foreign policy that includes frequent involvement in peace building and global governance. Switzerland is the birthplace of the Red Cross and hosts the headquarters or offices of most major international institutions, including the WTO, the WHO, the ILO, FIFA, the WEF, and the UN. It is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association EFTA and participates in the European single market and the Schengen Area. Switzerland is among the world's most developed countries, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest gross domestic product GDP per capita. It performs highly on several international metrics, including economic competitiveness, democratic governance, and press freedom. Zurich, Geneva and Basel rank among the highest in quality of life, albeit with some of the highest costs of living. Switzerland has a longstanding banking and financial sector, advanced pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, and a strong tradition of watchmaking, precision engineering, and technology. It is known for its chocolate and cheese production, well-developed tourism industry, and growing startup sector.

Etymology

Main article: Name of Switzerland

The English name Switzerland is a portmanteau of Switzer, an obsolete term for a Swiss person which was in use during the 16th to 19th centuries, and land. The English adjective Swiss is a loanword from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, one of the Waldstätte cantons which formed the nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy. The Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for "Confederates", Eidgenossen literally: comrades by oath, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica Helvetic Confederation.

The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, perhaps related to swedan to burn cf. Old Norse svíða 'to singe, burn, referring to the area of forest that was burned and cleared to build. The name was extended to the area dominated by the canton, and after the Swabian War of 1499 gradually came to be used for the entire Confederation. The Swiss German name of the country, Schwiiz, is homophonous to that of the canton and the settlement, but distinguished by the use of the definite article d'Schwiiz for the Confederation, but simply Schwyz for the canton and the town. The long  of Swiss German is historically and still often today spelled  rather than , preserving the original identity of the two names even in writing.

The Latin name Confoederatio Helvetica was neologised and introduced gradually after the formation of the federal state in 1848, harking back to the Napoleonic Helvetic Republic. It appeared on coins from 1879, inscribed on the Federal Palace in 1902 and after 1948 used in the official seal  the ISO banking code CHF for the Swiss franc, the Swiss postage stamps HELVETIA and the country top-level domain .ch, are both taken from the state's Latin name. Helvetica is derived from the Helvetii, a Gaulish tribe living on the Swiss Plateau before the Roman era.

Helvetia appeared as a national personification of the Swiss confederacy in the 17th century in a 1672 play by Johann Caspar Weissenbach.