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 Prayagraj ˈpreɪəˌɡrɑːdʒ, ˈpraɪə-, Hindi: pɾəjaːɡɾaːdʒ; ISO: Prayāgarāja, formerly and colloquially known as Allahabad, is a metropolis in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is the administrative headquarters of the Prayagraj district, the most populous district in the state and 13th most populous district in India and the Prayagraj division. The city is the judicial capital of Uttar Pradesh with the Allahabad High Court being the highest judicial body in the state. As of 2011, Prayagraj is the seventh most populous city in the state, thirteenth in Northern India and thirty-sixth in India, with an estimated population of 1.53 million in the city. In 2011, it was ranked the world's 40th fastest-growing city. The city, in 2016, was also ranked the third most liveable urban agglomeration in the state after Noida and Lucknow and sixteenth in the country. Hindi is the most widely spoken language in the city.

Prayagraj lies close to Triveni Sangam, the three-river confluence of the Ganges, Yamuna, and the mythical Sarasvati. It plays a central role in Hindu scriptures. The city finds its earliest reference as one of the world's oldest known cities in Hindu texts and has been venerated as the holy city of Prayāga in the ancient Vedas. Prayagraj was also known as Kosambi in the late Vedic period, named by the Kuru rulers of Hastinapur, who developed it as their capital. Known as Purimtal in ancient Jain scriptures, it is also a sacred place for Jains, as their first Tirthankar, Rishabhdeva attained kevalya gyana here. This was one of the greatest cities in India from the late Vedic period until the end of the Maurya Empire,[citation needed] with occupation continuing until the Gupta Empire. Since then, the city has been a political, cultural and administrative centre of the Doab region.

Akbarnama mentions that the Mughal emperor Akbar founded a great city in Allahabad. Abd al-Qadir Badayuni and Nizamuddin Ahmad mention that Akbar laid the foundations of an imperial city there which was called Ilahabas or Ilahabad. In the early 17th century, Allahabad was a provincial capital in the Mughal Empire under the reign of Jahangir. In 1833, it became the seat of the Ceded and Conquered Provinces region before its capital was moved to Agra in 1835. Allahabad became the capital of the North-Western Provinces in 1858 and was the capital of India for a day. The city was the capital of the United Provinces from 1902 to 1920 and remained at the forefront of national importance during the struggle for Indian independence.

Prayagraj is an international tourism destination, second in terms of tourist arrivals in the state after Varanasi. Located in southern Uttar Pradesh, the city covers 365 km2 141 sq mi. Although the city and its surrounding area are governed by several municipalities, a large portion of Prayagraj district is governed by the Prayagraj Municipal Corporation. The city is home to colleges, research institutions and many central and state government offices, including High court of Uttar Pradesh. Prayagraj has hosted cultural and sporting events, including the Prayag Kumbh Mela and the Indira Marathon. Although the city's economy was built on tourism, most of its income now derives from real estate and financial services.

 Varanasi Hindi pronunciation: ʋaːˈraːɳəsi also Benares, Banaras Hindustani pronunciation: , or Kashi, is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world.The city has a syncretic tradition of Islamic artisanship that underpins its religious tourism. Located in the middle-Ganges valley in the southeastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh, Varanasi lies on the left bank of the river. It is 692 kilometres 430 mi to the southeast of India's capital New Delhi and 320 kilometres 200 mi to the southeast of the state capital, Lucknow. It lies 121 kilometres 75 mi downstream of Prayagraj, where the confluence with the Yamuna river is another major Hindu pilgrimage site.

Varanasi is one of the world's oldest continually inhabited cities. Kashi, its ancient name, was associated with a kingdom of the same name in the first millenium BCE. The Lion capital of Ashoka at nearby Sarnath has been interpreted to be a commemoration of the Buddha's first sermon there in the fifth century BCE. In the 8th century, Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi. Tulsidas wrote his Awadhi language epic, the Ramcharitmanas, a Bhakti movement reworking of the Sanskrit Ramayana, in Varanasi. Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi, including Kabir and Ravidas. In the 16th century, Rajput nobles in the service of the Mughal emperor Akbar, sponsored work on Hindu temples in the city in an empire-wide architectural style. In 1740, Benares Estate, a zamindari estate, was established in the vicinity of the city in the Mughal Empire's semi-autonomous province of Awadh. Under the Treaty of Faizabad, the East India Company acquired Benares city in 1775. The city became a part of the Benares Division of British India's Ceded and Conquered Provinces in 1805, the North-Western Provinces in 1836, United Provinces in 1902, and of the Republic of India's state of Uttar Pradesh in 1950.

Silk weaving, carpets, crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population, as do the Banaras Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals. The city is known worldwide for its many ghats—steps leading down the steep river bank to the water—where pilgrims perform rituals. Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat, the Panchganga Ghat, the Manikarnika Ghat, and the Harishchandra Ghat, the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead. The Hindu genealogy registers at Varanasi are kept here. Among the notable temples in Varanasi are the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva, the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple, and the Durga Temple.

The city has long been an educational and musical centre: many prominent Indian philosophers, poets, writers, and musicians live or have lived in the city, and it was the place where the Benares gharana form of Hindustani classical music was developed. In the 20th century, the Hindi-Urdu writer Premchand and the shehnai player Bismillah Khan were associated with the city. India's oldest Sanskrit college, the Benares Sanskrit College, was founded by Jonathan Duncan, the resident of the East India Company in 1791. Later, education in Benares was greatly influenced by the rise of Indian nationalism in the late 19th century. Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College in 1898. In 1916, she and Madan Mohan Malviya founded the Banaras Hindu University, India's first modern residential university. Kashi Vidyapith was established in 1921, a response to Mahatma Gandhi's non-cooperation movement.

 Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga IAST: mahākāleśvara is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva and is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas, shrines which are said to be the most sacred abodes of Shiva. It is located in the ancient city of Ujjain in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. The temple is situated on the side of the holy river Shipra. The presiding deity, Shiva in the lingam form is believed to be Swayambhu, deriving currents of power Shakti from within itself as against the other images and lingams that are ritually established and invested with mantra-shakti.

Madhya Pradesh has two Jyotirlingas, the second one, Omkareshwar Jyotirlinga, is situated about 140 km south of Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga.

Temple shrines

Mahakal Lok Corridor

Sapta Puri

Dwarka: Dwarkadhish Temple

Ujjain: Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga

Kanchipuram: Kamakshi Amman Temple

Mathura: Shri Krishna Janmabhoomi

Ayodhya: Ram ki Paidi

Haridwar: Har Ki Pauri

Varanasi: Dashashwamedh Ghat

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The idol of Mahakaleshwar is known to be dakshinamurthi, which means that it is facing the south This is a unique feature, upheld by the tantric shivnetra tradition to be found only in Mahakaleshwar among the 12 Jyotirlingas. The idol of Omkareshwar Mahadevji is consecrated in the sanctum above the Mahakal shrine. The images of Ganesh, Parvati and Karttikeya are installed in the west, north, and east of the sanctum sanctorum. To the south is the image of Nandi, the vehicle of Shiva. The idol of Nagchandreshwar on the third storey is open for darshan only on the day of Nag Panchami. The temple has five levels, one of which is underground. The temple itself is located in a spacious courtyard surrounded by massive walls near a lake. The shikhar or the spire is adorned with sculptural finery. Brass lamps light the way to the underground sanctum. It is believed that prasada holy offering offered here to the deity can be re-offered unlike all other shrines.

The presiding deity of time, Shiva, in all his splendor, reigns eternally in the city of Ujjain. The temple of Mahakaleshwar, its shikhar soaring into the sky, an imposing façade against the skyline, evokes primordial awe and reverence with its majesty. The Mahakal dominates the life of the city and its people, even in the midst of the busy routine of modern preoccupations, and provides an unbreakable link with ancient Hindu traditions.

On the day of Maha Shivaratri, a huge fair is held near the temple, and worship goes on through the night.

The Temple has a shrine for Parvati known as avantika devigoddess of ujjain city behind the palki dwar at the back side of Ram Temple.

Mahakaleshwar jyotirlinga

Main article: Jyotirlinga § Twelve most sacred sites

The Mahakaleshwar temple jyotirling is one of twelve total jyotirling, worshipped at twelve temples across India.

According to the Shiva Purana, Shiva once appeared as a fiery column of light, or jyotirlinga, to establish his supremacy over Brahma and Vishnu. The jyotirlinga is the supreme partless reality, out of which Shiva partly appears. It is believed that jyotirlinga shrines are places where Shiva appeared as a fiery column of light. Each of the twelve jyotirlinga sites take the name of the presiding deity - each considered different manifestation of Shiva.[8] At all these sites, the primary image is lingam representing the beginningless and endless Stambha pillar, symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva.

The Mahakaleshwar Temple as a Shakti Peeth

Main articles: Daksha Yaga and Shakti Peethas

Shiva carrying the corpse of Sati Devi

The shrine is revered as one of the 18 Maha Shakti Peetham.

Shakti Peethas are shrines that are believed to have enshrined with the presence of Shakti due to the falling of body parts of the corpse of Sati Devi, when Shiva carried it. Each of the 51 Shakti Peethas has shrines for Shakti and Kalabhairava. The Upper Lip of Sati Devi is said to have fallen here and the Shakti is called as Mahakali.

References in Hindu scriptures

According to the Puranas, the city of Ujjain was called Avantika and was famous for its beauty and its status as a devotional epicenter. It was also one of the primary cities where students went to study holy scriptures. According to legend, there was a ruler of Ujjain called Chandrasena, who was a pious devotee of Shiva and worshiped him all the time. One day, a farmer's boy named Shrikhar was walking on the grounds of the palace and heard the King chanting Shiva's name and rushed to the temple to start praying with him. However, the guards removed him by force and sent him to the outskirts of the city near the river Kshipra. Rivals of Ujjain, primarily King Ripudamana and King Singhaditya of the neighboring kingdoms decided to attack the Kingdom and take over its treasures around this time. Hearing this, Shrikhar started to pray and the news spread to a priest named Vridhi. He was shocked to hear this and upon the urgent pleas of his sons, started to pray to Shiva at the river Kshipra. The Kings chose to attack and were successful; with the help of the powerful demon Dushan, who was blessed by Brahma to be invisible, they plundered the city and attacked all the devotees of Lord Shiva. 

 Jodhpur Hindi pronunciation: is the second-largest city of the north-western Indian state of Rajasthan, after its capital Jaipur. As of 2025, the city has a population of 1.6 million. It serves as the administrative headquarters of the Jodhpur district and Jodhpur division. It is the historic capital of the Kingdom of Marwar, founded in 1459 by Rao Jodha, a Rajput chief of the Rathore clan. On 11 August 1947, 4 days prior to the Indian independence, Maharaja Hanwant Singh the last ruler of Jodhpur state signed the Instrument of Accession and merged his state in Union of India. On 30 March 1949, it became part of the newly formed state of Rajasthan, which was created after merging the states of the erstwhile Rajputana.

Jodhpur is a famous tourist spot with a palace, fort, and temples, set in the stark landscape of the Thar Desert. It is also known as the Blue City due to the dominant color scheme of its buildings in the old town. The old city circles the Mehrangarh Fort and is bounded by a wall with several gates. Jodhpur lies near the geographic centre of the Rajasthan state, which makes it a convenient base for travel in a region much frequented by tourists.

Etymology

The name Jodhpur is derived from its founder, Rao Jodha, who established the city in 1459. Jodh represents Rao Jodha, and pur means city or town in Sanskrit, making it the City of Jodha.

Geography and climate

Jodhpur has a hot desert climate Köppen BWh, due to its very high potential evapotranspiration. Although the average rainfall is around 362 mm 14.3 in, which falls mostly from June to September, it fluctuates greatly. In the famine year of 1899, Jodhpur received only 24 mm 0.94 in, but in the flood year of 1917, it received as much as 1,178 mm 46.4 in. Jojari river, a tributary of Luni River, flows from Banad to Salawas in Jodhpur Urban Area. A riverfront development project for the Jojari River, covering a 35 km stretch within the Jodhpur urban Area, was approved in January 2021 under the Namami Gange programme of the Ministry of Jal Shakti. Previously, the project was overseen by the Jodhpur Development Authority. Pin Code of Jodhpur is 342001 which comes under Jodhpur postal division Jodhpur Region.

Temperatures are extreme from March to October, except when the monsoonal rain produces thick clouds to lower it slightly. In April, May, and June, high temperatures routinely exceed 40 °C. During the monsoon season, average temperatures decrease slightly, but the city's generally low humidity rises, which adds to the perception of the heat. The highest temperature recorded in Jodhpur was on 20 May 2016, when it rose to 48.8 °C 119.8 °F.

 Vrindavan pronounced  ; IAST: Vṛndāvana, also spelt Vrindaban and Brindaban, is a historical city in the Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located in the Braj Bhoomi region and holds religious importance for Hindus, who believe that Krishna, one of the main Gods in Hinduism, spent most of his childhood in this city. Vrindavan has about 5,500 temples dedicated to the worship of Krishna and his chief consort, Radha. It is one of the most sacred places for Vaishnava traditions.

Vrindavan forms a part of the Krishna pilgrimage circuit under development by the Indian Ministry of Tourism. The circuit also includes Mathura, Barsana, Gokul, Govardhan, Kurukshetra, Dwarka and Puri.

Etymology

The ancient Sanskrit name of the city, वृन्दावन Vṛndāvana, comes from its groves of vṛndā holy basil and vana grove, forest.

History

The 17th century Shri Radha Madan Mohan Temple was built by Raja Gopal Singhji of Karauli dynasty

Vrindavan has an ancient past, associated with Hindu culture and history, and was established in the 16th and 17th centuries as a result of an explicit treaty between Muslims and Hindu Emperors, and is an important Hindu pilgrimage site since long.

In contemporary times, Vallabha Charya an Indian saint from 15th century, aged eleven visited Vrindavan. Later on, he performed three pilgrimages of India, barefoot giving discourses on Bhagavad Gita at 84 places. These 84 places are known as Pushtimarg Baithak and since then have the places of pilgrimage. Yet, he stayed in Vrindavan for four months each year. Vrindavan thus heavily influenced his formation of Pushtimarg.

Banke Bihari Temple, Vrindavan

Banke Bihari Temple, Vrindavan

The essence of Vrindavan was lost over time until the 16th century when it was rediscovered by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In the year 1515, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu visited Vrindavan, with the purpose of locating the lost holy places associated with Krishna's life.

In the last 250 years, the extensive forests of Vrindavan have been subjected to urbanisation, first by local Rajas and in recent decades by apartment developers. The forest cover has been whittled away to only a few remaining spots, and the local wildlife, including peacocks, cows, monkeys and a variety of bird species has been virtually eliminated.

Prem Mahavidyalaya

In 1909, Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh established India’s first polytechnic college, Prem Mahavidyalaya in Vrindavan, with the dual vision of promoting education and nurturing nationalist thought. During the inauguration of Prem Mahavidyalaya, Madan Mohan Malviya was also present. Over time, it evolved into an intellectual centre for revolutionary ideas and a meeting place for freedom fighters and Congress leaders.

Prominent figures such as Subhas Chandra Bose, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarojini Naidu, C.F. Andrews, and Jawaharlal Nehru visited the college, leaving their remarks in its visitor book. Mahatma Gandhi spent a day there on 19 April 1915, recording his admiration for Singh’s dedication to the national cause. In 1914, Mahendra Pratap Singh left Prem Mahavidyalaya to seek international backing for India’s independence.

 Mathura Braj pronunciation:   is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located 162 kilometres 101 mi south-east of Delhi; and about 15 kilometres 9.3 mi from the town of Vrindavan. In ancient times, Mathura was an economic hub, located at the junction of important caravan routes. The 2011 Census of India estimated the population of Mathura at 441,894.

In Hinduism, the birthplace of Krishna, one of the main deities in that religion, is believed to be located in Mathura at the Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex. It is one of the Sapta Puri, the seven cities considered holy by Hindus, also called the Mokshyadayni Tirth. The Kesava Deo Temple was built in ancient times on the site of Krishna's birthplace an underground prison. Mathura was the capital of the kingdom of Surasena, ruled by Kamsa, the maternal uncle of Krishna. Mathura is part of the Krishna circuit Mathura, Vrindavan, Barsana, Govardhan, Kurukshetra, Dwarka and Bhalka. Krishna Janmashtami is grandly celebrated in Mathura every year.

Mathura has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of Government of India.

History

See also: Mathura art

Traditionally it is believed that it was founded by Shatrughna after killing Yadava Lavana at the site of Madhuvana. According to Ramayana it was founded by Madhu a man of the Yadu tribe. Later on Madhu's son Lavanasura was defeated by Shatrughna.

Along the Ghats of Mathura c. 1880

General view of the excavations in January 1889 at Kankali Tila, Mathura

Statue of Kanishka I, second century CE, Mathura Museum

Sculpture of woman from ancient Braj-Mathura, c. second century CE

Mathura, which lies at the centre of the cultural region of Braj has an ancient history and is also believed to be the homeland and birthplace of Krishna, who belonged to the Yadu dynasty. According to the Archaeological Survey of India plaque at the Mathura Museum, the city is mentioned in the oldest Indian epic, the Ramayana. In the epic, the Ikshwaku prince Shatrughna slays a demon called Lavanasura and claims the land. Afterwards, the place came to be known as Madhuvan as it was thickly wooded, then Madhupura and later Mathura. The most important pilgrimage site in Mathura was Katra market place, now referred to as Krishna Janmasthan the birthplace of Krishna. Excavations at the site revealed pottery and terracotta dating to the sixth century BCE, the remains of a large Buddhist complex, including a monastery called Yasha Vihara of the Gupta period, as well as Jain sculptures of the same era.

Ancient history

Archaeological excavations at Mathura show the gradual growth of a village into an important city during the Vedic age. The earliest period belonged to the Painted Grey Ware culture 1100–500 BCE, followed by the Northern Black Polished Ware culture 700–200 BCE. Mathura derived its importance as a center of trade due to its location where the northern trade route of the Indo-Gangetic Plain met with the routes to Malwa central India and the west coast. Archaeologists have discovered a fragment of Mathura red sandstone from Rakhigarhi - a site of Indus Valley Civilisation dated to third millennium BCE - which was used as a grindstone; red sandstone was also a popular material for historic period sculptures.

By the sixth century BCE Mathura became the capital of the Surasena Kingdom. The city was later ruled by the Maurya empire fourth to second centuries BCE. Megasthenes, writing in the early third century BCE, mentions Mathura as a great city under the name Μέθορα Méthora. It seems it never was under the direct control of the following Shunga dynasty 2nd century BCE as not a single archaeological remain of a Shunga presence were ever found in Mathura.

The Indo-Greeks may have taken control, direct or indirect, of Mathura some time between 180 BCE and 100 BCE, and remained so as late as 70 BCE according to the Yavanarajya inscription, which was found in Maghera, a town 17 kilometres 11 mi from Mathura. The opening of the 3 line text of this inscription in Brahmi script translates as: In the 116th year of the Yavana kingdom... or In the 116th year of Yavana hegemony Yavanarajya However, this also corresponds to the presence of the native Mitra dynasty of local rulers in Mathura, in approximately the same time frame 150 BCE—50 BCE, possibly pointing to a vassalage relationship with the Indo-Greeks.

 Jaipur Rajasthani: Jayapura, pronounced  is the capital and the largest city of the north-western Indian state of Rajasthan. As of 2011, the city had a population of 3.1 million, making it the tenth most populous city in the country. Located 268 km 167 miles from the national capital New Delhi, Jaipur is also known as the Pink City due to the dominant color scheme of its buildings in the old city.

Jaipur was founded in 1727 by Sawai Jai Singh II, the Kachhwaha Rajput ruler of Amer, after whom the city is named. It is one of the earliest planned cities of modern India, designed by Vidyadhar Bhattacharya. During the British colonial period, the city served as the capital of Jaipur State. After Indian independence in 1947, Jaipur became the capital of the newly formed state of Rajasthan in 1949.

Jaipur is a popular tourist destination in India, forming a part of the Western Golden Triangle tourist circuit along with Delhi and Agra.[14] The city serves as a gateway to other tourist destinations in Rajasthan, such as Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Udaipur, Bundi, Kota, and Mount Abu; it has two World heritage sites, Amer Fort, Hawa Mahal and Jantar Mantar. On 6 July 2019, the city was placed on the World Heritage Cities list. It is also known as the Paris of India. Due to its beauty, C.V. Raman called it the Island of Glory.

Etymology

Jaipur derives its name from Sawai Jai Singh II, the Kachhwaha ruler of Amer, who founded the city in 1727. In Sanskrit, variations of the word pur or pura are commonly used to refer to a city or town. So Jaipur essentially means The City of Jai or Jai's City.

History

Main article: History of Jaipur

Sawai Jai Singh, the founder of Jaipur

Jaipur was founded by the Rajput chief of Kachhwaha clan, Jai Singh II, on 18 November 1727, who ruled the region from 1699 to 1743. He planned to shift his capital from Amber, 11 kilometres 7 mi to Jaipur to accommodate the growing population and increasing scarcity of water.[17] Jai Singh consulted with several architects while planning the layout of Jaipur and established the city based on the principles of Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastra, under the architectural guidance of Vidyadhar Bhattacharya. The construction of the city began in 1726. During the rule of Sawai Ram Singh II, the city was painted pink to welcome Albert Edward, Prince of Wales in 1876. Many of the avenues remain painted in pink, giving Jaipur a distinctive appearance and the epithet Pink City.

In the 19th century, the city grew rapidly and had a population of 160,000 by 1900. The wide boulevards were paved, and its chief industries included metalwork and marble, fostered by a school of art founded in 1868. In August 1981, large areas of the city including the airport, were flooded due to heavy rains from a cloudburst, resulting in the deaths of eight people and much damage to the city's Dravyavati River. On 6 July 2019, the city was named to the World Heritage Cities list.

 The Ranganathaswamy Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Ranganatha a form of Vishnu and his consort Ranganayaki a form of Lakshmi. The temple is located in Srirangam, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India. Constructed in the Tamil architectural style, the temple is glorified by the Tamil poet-saints called the Alvars in their canon, the Naalayira Divya Prabhandam, and has the unique distinction of being the foremost among the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to the god Vishnu. The Srirangam temple stands as the largest religious complex in the world in active worship with a continuous historical presence as a Hindu temple. Some of these structures have been renovated, expanded and rebuilt over the centuries as a living temple. The latest addition is the outer tower that is approximately 73 metres 240 ft tall, which was completed in 1987 with support from the Ahobila mutt among others. The temple is an thriving Hindu house of worship and follows the Tenkalai tradition of Sri Vaishnavism, based on the Pancharatra agama. The annual 21-day festival conducted during the Tamil month of Margali December–January attracts 1 million visitors. The temple complex has been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and is in UNESCO's tentative list. In 2017, the temple won the UNESCO Asia Pacific Award of Merit 2017 for cultural heritage conservation, making it the first temple in Tamil Nadu to receive the award from the UNESCO.

It is among the most illustrious Vaishnava temples in the world, rich in legend and history. The deity finds a mention in the Sanskrit epic Ramayana which is dated well before 3000 BCE  which also pushes the existence of deity to the same era. The temple has played an important role in Vaishnava history starting with the 11th-century career of Ramanuja and his predecessors Nathamuni and Yamunacharya in Srirangam. Its location, on an island between the Kollidam and Kaveri rivers, has rendered it vulnerable to flooding as well as the rampaging of invading armies which repeatedly commandeered the site for military encampment. The temple was looted and destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate armies in a broad plunder raid on various cities of the Pandyan kingdom in the early 14th century. The temple was rebuilt in the late 14th century, the site fortified and expanded with many more gopurams in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was one of the hubs of early Bhakti movement with a devotional singing and dance tradition, but this tradition stopped during the 14th century and was revived in a limited way much later.

The temple occupies an area of 63 hectares 155 acres with 81 shrines, 21 towers, 39 pavilions, and many water tanks integrated into the complex. The temple town is a significant archaeological and epigraphical site, providing a historic window into the early and mid medieval South Indian society and culture. Numerous inscriptions suggest that this Hindu temple served not only as a spiritual center, but also a major economic and charitable institution that operated education and hospital facilities, ran a free kitchen, and financed regional infrastructure projects from the gifts and donations it received. 

 The Sabarimala Sree Dharma Sastha Temple Malayalam pronunciation: [ʃabəɾimala]), is a Hindu temple dedicated to the God Dharma Sastha where the deity is worshipped as Lord Ayyappan, the son of the deities Shiva and Mohini female avatar of the god Vishnu, and is situated atop the Sabarimala hill in Ranni-Perunad village of Ranni Taluk in Thiruvalla Revenue Division of Pathanamthitta district in the Kerala state of India. The temple is surrounded by 18 hills in the Periyar Tiger Reserve. It is one of the largest annual pilgrimage sites in the world, with an estimate of over 10 to 15 million devotees visiting every year.

The temple is open for worship only during the days of Mandala Pooja approximately 15 November to 26 December, Makaravilakku or Makara Sankranti 14 January, Maha Thirumal Sankranti 14 April, and the first five days of each Malayalam month. The Sabarimala Temple serves as a prime example of the amalgamation of several religious traditions within the Indian context.

The temple practices prohibit women between the ages of 10 and 50 years from accessing the temple premises. This restriction was lifted by the Supreme Court of India after a case was filed by five hindi speaking North Indian women advocates from Delhi including Prerana Kumari, who is the official spokesperson of the Purvanchal Morcha and the secretary of the BJP legal Cell Supreme court unit.

Origins and legends

According to Bhagavata Purana, god Shiva lay with god Vishnu while the latter was in the female Mohini form. Their carnal union resulted in the conception of the deity Shasta. Shasta is also known as Hariharaputra, the son of Hari Vishnu and Hara Shiva. It is believed that Ayyappa is a form of Shasta.

The worship of Shasta forms part of the ancient history of South India. There are many Shasta temples in South India and across the globe.

Five Shasta temples, namely those in Kulathupuzha, Aryankavu, Achankovil, Sabarimala, and Ponnambalmedu, are said to be linked to Parashurama, an avatar of Vishnu. In Kulathupuzha, Shasta is venerated as a child deity. In the Aryankavu temple, he is worshipped as an adolescent Brahmachari. The Achankovil temple is connected to the deity's Grihastha household, where he is shown sitting on a horse and holding a sword, along with his wives, Pushkala and Poorna. The Sabarimala temple is associated with the deity's Vanaprastha, and in the Ponnambalmedu or Kantamala temple, the deity is shown as the greatest Yogi.

Legend of Manikandan

Sage Suta told his followers the story of how Ayyappa was born, according to Bhutnathopakhyanam, a text for Ayyappan followers. After Chamundi killed Mahisasura, his sister Mahisi arrived to take revenge on the devas gods. Brahma gave Mahishi a boon that made her invincible, with the caveat that only a human born of two males could kill her. The devas were afraid and helpless, so they sought assistance from Vishnu. The union of Shiva and Vishnu, who took the avatar of Mohini, produced a son named Manikandan.

Manikandan was abandoned on the banks of the Pampa River in southern India. The emperor Rajasekhara of the Panthalam dynasty, who was child less, found this child. In the meantime, the queen delivered a baby. The queen disliked Manikandan and devised a scheme to eliminate him. She lied about her sickness, claiming that she could only be treated by consuming tiger's milk. Twelve-year-old Manikandan ventured into the wilderness in search of tiger's milk for his adoptive mother. On his journey through the forest, he killed Mahisi. The devas were pleased at Mahishi's death. Indra assumed the appearance of a tiger, which Manikandan used to return to the kingdom. He flung an arrow into the forest to mark the location of a temple, directed them to construct a temple, and then departed for Devaloka the devas' abode.

 Jyotiba Temple Marathi: ज्योतिबा is a holy site of Hinduism near Wadi Ratnagiri in Kolhapur district of Maharashtra state in western India. The deity of the temple is known by the same name. An annual fair takes place on the full moon night of the Hindu months of Chaitra and Vaishakha.

Location

There was a small temple in the place of today's Jyotiba big temple. Jyotiba temple is situated at 3124 feet above sea level and is dedicated to Jyotiba. The temple is 18 km north-west of Kolhapur. According to the tradition, the original Kedareshwar temple was built by Navaji Sayaji, also known as Kedar baba from village kival near Karad. In 1730, Ranoji Shinde built the present Jyotiba temple in its place. This temple was constructed by craftsmen known as Kedar who were well-known for their sculptures  Hemadpanti . Fine black basalt stones were used according to the scriptures. Kedar craftsmen of Vishvakarma Kula Acharyas were believed to be descendants of Acharyas who re-constructed the Kedarnath Temple under the guidance of Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century A.D., later they were known as Kedar's. Kedar craftsmen also constructed Martand Bhaira Jejuri Khandoba Temple, the Tulja Bhavani temple of Tuljapur, and the Kedareshwar Temple of Harishchandragad. The shrine here at Jyotiba is 57  ft x 37  ft x 77  ft high including the spire. The second temple of Kedareshwar is 49  ft x 22  ft x 89  ft high. This shrine was constructed by Daulatrao Shinde in 1808. The third temple of Ramling is 13  ft x 13  ft x 40  ft high including its dome. This temple was constructed circa 1780 by Malji Nilam Panhalkar. The interior of the temple is ancient. There are other temples and light towers on the premises.

Ancient story

The central icon of Jyotiba

Shri Jyotiba or Kedareshvar is an incarnation of Bramha, Vishnu, and Mahesh, part of sage Jamadgni's anger, and shine of 12 suns. He is mainly considered as Avatar of Shiva by devotees due to his name Kedareshwar. Legend says Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva came together to incarnate as the deity Jyotiba who eventually destroyed the evil Ratnasura. Jyotiba helped Ambabai in her fight with the demons. He founded his kingdom on this mountain and belongs to the Nath sampradaya. Lord Jyotiba destroyed Raktabhoja Rakshasa, and Ratnasura Rakshasa thus liberating the region from their tyranny. The idol of Lord Jyotiba is four-armed.

Festival

On Chaitra Poornima of the Hindu calendar, a big fair is held, when lacs of devotees come with tall Sasan sticks. Shree Kshetra Padali, vihe, Kolhapur Chatrapati, Himmat Bahadur Chavan, Gwalior Shinde, and Kival Navajibaba are some sasankathis in this festival. Due to the scattering of Gulal by the devotees, the entire temple complex appears pink and even the Jyotiba hill has turned pink, resulting in people referring to the temple as the Pink temple. Being Sunday is a day dedicated to Jyotiba, there is always a rush over there.

 Balumama Maharaj, born Ballappa, 3 October 1892 – 4 September 1966 was an Indian saint, guru, mystic, and a yogi.

Life and miracles

Early life

Balumama was born on 4 October 1892 in a village called Akkol in Chikkodi taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka in a Hindu dhangar Shepherd family. His father was a shepherd named Mayappa and his mother's name was Sundara. He spent his childhood with his parents but was always lost in meditation. He later went on to live some time after do marriage The marriage did not last long. He was given about 15 sheep by his in-laws which he started to tend. 

Temple

Balumama attained samadhi at the age of 73 in 1966 in a village called Adamapur in Kolhapur district of Maharashtra. A temple was built in his memory in Adamapur which lies between Nipani in Karnataka and Radhanagari in Maharashtra. The Temple is managed by Shri Balumama Sansthana. The small flock have now grown to 40,000 sheep, which are looked after by his devotees and still considered sacred.

Books

'Shri Sant Sadguru Devavtari Balumama Charitra Granth' By Mr. C. S. Kulkarni Marathi

'Bhav-Bhakticha Bhandara' By Mr. S. Killedar Marathi

'Shri Balumama Vijaygranth' By Dr. Shrikrishna D. Deshmukh Marathi

'Shri Sant Sadguru Balumama Arati Sangraha' By Mr. B. B. Aidmale Marathi

'Sri Sant Sadguru Balumama Namanstotra' By Madhav Joshi Marathi

'Sri Sant Balumama Stavan' By Mr. C. G. Patil Marathi

Movies and TV show

'Sant Balumama VCD Marathi' by Fountain, directed by Rajesh Limkar, produced by Shailesh Limkar.

'Sant Balumama संत बाळू मामा Full Movie' Bhakti Movie Hindi Devotional Movie, Indian Movie, Hindi Movie, written and directed by Raju Fulkar.

Balumama Chya Navan Chang Bhala by Colors Marathi.

ಪವಾಡ ಪುರುಷ in Kannada by Colors Kannada

Desi oon Stopmotion film, written by Swanand Kirkire

 Shani Shingnapur or Shani Shinganapur or Shingnapur is a village in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Situated in Nevasa Taluka in Ahmednagar district, the village is known for its popular temple of Shani, the Hindu god associated with the planet graha Saturn. The village is 35 kilometres from the city of Ahmednagar.

Details

Shingnapur is also famous for the fact that no house in the village has doors, only door frames. Despite this, officially no theft has been reported in the village although there were reports of theft in 2010 and 2011.

The temple is believed to be a jagrut devasthan lit. alive temple, meaning that a deity still resides in the temple. Villagers believe that god Shani punishes anyone attempting thievery. The deity here is Swayambhu Sanskrit: self-evolved deity that is self emerged from earth in form of black, imposing stone. Though no one knows the exact period, it is believed that the Swayambhu Shanaishwara statue was found by shepherds of the then local hamlet. It is believed to be in existence at least since the start of Kali Yuga.

The village has a post office and a high school known as Shri Shanishwar Vidya Mandir besides the primary schools run by the Zilla Parishad. The chief source of water supply in the village is wells.

Historical importance

Duration: 13 seconds.0:13

Shrine of Shani Shingnapur

The story of the swayambhu statue handed down from generations through word of mouth, goes something like this: When the shepherds touched the big black stone with a pointed rod, the stone started bleeding. The shepherds were astounded. Soon the whole village gathered around to watch the miracle. On that night Lord Shaneeshwara appeared in the dream of the most devoted and pious of the shepherds.

He told the devout shepherd that He is Shaneeshwara, and the unique black stone is His swayambhu form. The shepherd prayed, asking the Lord whether he should construct a temple for Him. To this, Lord Shani said there is no need for a roof as the whole sky is His roof and He prefers to be under open sky. He asked the shepherd to do daily pooja and tēla oil abhisheka every Saturday. He also promised the whole hamlet will have no fear of dacoits or burglars or thieves.

So, Lord Shanaishwara can be seen even today, in the open yard without any roof. To this day, there are no doors for any houses, shops, temples. Due to the fear of Lord Shani, none of the structures, be it dwelling houses, huts, shops, etc. situated within one kilometer radius of this Lord Shani temple have doors or locks. No thievery or burglary was reported until 2010 when first theft was reported and again another one was reported in 2011. Shani Shingnapur is visited daily by thousands of devotees praying for Lord Shaneswara's blessings. The place is busiest on Saturdays. Shani Thrayodashi is also considered to be a favourite day of the lord. Similarly Saturday falling on Amavasya New moon day in Sanskrit and many other Indian languages is considered to be a favourite day of the Lord Shanaishwara and on those days devotees seeking his blessings throng this temple in huge numbers. In the history of the village, there has not been a single incident of riot, murder or rape. It is believed that nobody from the village has ever gone to a home of the aged, nor has there been a single complaint lodged in a police station.

 Shirdi pronunciation; also known as Sainagar is a town and pilgrimage site in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Shirdi is located in the Rahata taluka of Ahmednagar district. It is most well known for being the home of the 19th-century Indian saint Sai Baba.

History

Further information: Sai Baba of Shirdi § Biography

Sai Baba with some devotees.

In the mid-1850s, a young Sai Baba arrived and settled in Shirdi, then a small village. Although he was initially denounced by the villagers as a madman, over the following decades, he became a prominent spiritual figure, drawing both Hindu and Muslim devotees from the surrounding areas. Following his death in 1918, his remains were placed in Buti Wada, which eventually grew to become what is known today as Sai Baba's Samadhi Mandir or Shirdi Sai Baba Temple.

Demographics

As of the 2011 Indian census, the population of Shirdi stood at 36,004, with males comprising 53 and females comprising 47. The town recorded an average literacy rate of 70, with male literacy at 76 and female literacy at 62. About 15% of residents were under six years of age. By 2023, the town received around 60,000 religious tourists each day.

Transportation

Train

The Sainagar Shirdi railway station became operational in March 2009. As of 2011, there are trains from Chennai, Mumbai, Visakhapatnam, Kakinada, Vijayawada, Hyderabad, Mysore, among others.

Air

Shirdi Airport was inaugurated by then-president Ramnath Kovind on 1 October 2017. Major destinations from Shirdi Airport include the airports of Delhi, Hyderabad, Chennai, and Mumbai. The airport is located in Kakadi, in the Kopargaon tahsil area, 14 km southwest of Shirdi. The construction, according to the original plans, was completed in February 2016, and the first trial flight took place on 2 March 2016. In July 2019, the state government approved extending the runway from 2,500 metres 8,200 ft to 3,200 metres 10,500 ft, building a new terminal to boost hourly passenger capacity from 300 to 1,000, and adding night-landing facilities.

The nearest major airports are at Aurangabad and Pune, 115 km 71 mi and 186 km 116 mi respectively, from Shirdi.

 Panchgani, called Paachgani, is a hill station and municipal council in Satara district in Maharashtra, India. Panchgani attracts tourists throughout the year. It is also known for having many convent boarding schools.

Panchgani is around 108 kilometres from Pune and 250 kilometres from Mumbai.

History

Table Land, Panchgani

Panchgani was developed by the British during the British Raj as a summer resort under the supervision of Lord John Chesson in the 1860s. Panchgani was developed as a retirement place because its climate remained pleasant throughout the year. He surveyed the hills of this region with Rustomji Dubash and finally decided on this nameless area around the five villages: Dandeghar, Godavali, Ambral, Khingar, and Taighat. The place was aptly named Panchgani, meaning land between five villages, and Chesson was made the superintendent. To develop the infrastructure, Chesson encouraged various professionals - tailors, dhobis, butchers, vegetable vendors, building contractors - to also settle in Panchgani. The area below the bazaar was allotted to them, and is now known as the gaothan. He is credited with planting plant species from the western world in Panchgani, including silver oak and poinsettia, which have flourished since then in Panchgani. Chesson was buried in the graveyard of St. Peter's Church. In 1971 or '72, his death centenary was observed in a big way, when for the first time, the town folk and the schools participated together in a ceremony to remember the founder of Panchgani.

Boarding schools

A number of schools were started in the 19th century across different communities, and Panchgani started flourishing as an educational town.

In the 1890s, Kimmins High School was started for European boys and girls. 1902, the boys' section separated to become European Boys High School, now known as St. Peter's School, Panchgani, and Kimmins became an exclusive girls' school. In 1895, the Roman Catholic order of nuns known as "Daughters of The Cross" started St. Joseph's Convent School, Panchgani. All three boarding schools were modeled on the English Public Schools of that time, and were affiliated to Cambridge University. The board exams would be held in December, the question papers being sent from England by sea. The answer papers were sent back by sea and the results were declared in June.

Shortly afterward, other communities started their schools. These schools were affiliated to matriculation examination of the Bombay Presidency. The Parsi School, the first of these schools, later became the Billimoria School. The Muslim School became the Union High School, and is now known as Anjuman-I-Islam School. Both these schools were modelled on the English Public Schools. Hindu High School was started, now known as the Sanjeewan Vidyalaya. This was modelled on Rabindranath Tagore's Shantiniketan. The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of India runs the New Era High School. A retired teacher from the Parsi High School, Mr. S. M. Batha started the S.M. Batha School, Panchgani International School and junior College is also one of the Best School in Panchgani.

 Mumbai mʊmˈbaɪ muum-BY; Marathi: Mumbaī, pronounced ˈmumbəi , also known as Bombay bɒmˈbeɪ bom-BAY; its official name until 1995, is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Mumbai is the financial capital and the most populous city proper of India with an estimated population of 12.5 million 1.25 crore. Mumbai is the centre of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, which is among the most populous metropolitan areas in the world with a population of over 23 million 2.3 crore. Mumbai lies on the Konkan coast on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named an alpha world city. Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires out of any city in Asia.

The seven islands that constitute Mumbai were earlier home to communities of Marathi language-speaking Koli people. For centuries, the seven islands of Bombay were under the control of successive indigenous rulers before being ceded to the Portuguese Empire, and subsequently to the East India Company in 1661, as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza in her marriage to Charles II of England. Beginning in 1782, Mumbai was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the Arabian Sea. Along with the construction of major roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845, transformed Mumbai into a major seaport on the Arabian Sea. Mumbai in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development. During the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon India's independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State. In 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra Movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Mumbai as the capital.

Mumbai is the financial, commercial, and entertainment capital of India. Mumbai is often compared to New York City, and is home to the Bombay Stock Exchange, situated on Dalal Street. It is also one of the world's top ten centres of commerce in terms of global financial flow, generating 6.16 of India's GDP, and accounting for 25% of the nation's industrial output, 70% of maritime trade in India Mumbai Port Trust, Dharamtar Port and JNPT, and 70 of capital transactions to India's economy. The city houses important financial institutions and the corporate headquarters of numerous Indian companies and multinational corporations. The city is also home to some of India's premier scientific and nuclear institutes and the Hindi and Marathi film industries. Mumbai's business opportunities attract migrants from all over India.

 Secunderabad Telugu: sikənd̪əɾaːbaːd̪, formerly Ulwul, is a twin city of Hyderabad and one of the six zones of the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation GHMC in the Indian state of Telangana. It is the headquarters of the South Central Railway zone. Named after the Mir Akbar Ali Khan Sikander Jah, Asaf Jah III, Nizam of the Asaf Jahi dynasty, Secunderabad was established in 1806 as a British cantonment. Although both the cities are together referred to as the twin cities, Hyderabad and Secunderabad have different histories and cultures, with Secunderabad having developed directly under British rule until 1948, and Hyderabad as the capital of the Nizams' princely state of Hyderabad. Since 1956, the city has housed the Rashtrapati Nilayam, the winter office of the president of India. It is also the headquarters of the 54th Infantry Division of the Indian Army. There are also many residential areas and apartments, particularly in the small neighbourhood of Yapral, with many Indian Armed Forces officials living here.

Geographically divided from Hyderabad by the Hussain Sagar lake, Secunderabad is no longer a separate municipal unit and has become part of Hyderabad's Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation. Both cities are collectively known as Hyderabad and together form the sixth-largest metropolis in India. Being one of the largest cantonments in India, Secunderabad has a large presence of army and air force personnel. Secunderabad also has a large number of lakes, with the northern part of the Hussain Sagar Lake being a part of the city and Fox Sagar Lake being the largest lake in Secunderabad. The city also houses the famous Ramoji Film City.

History

See also: History of Hyderabad

James Street circa 1880, an important shopping district in Secunderabad

Following the dissolution of the Chalukya empire into four parts in the 11th century, the areas around the present-day Hyderabad and Secunderabad came under the control of the Kakatiya dynasty 1158–1310, whose seat of power was at Warangal, 148 k 92 mi northeast of modern Hyderabad.

In 1310, the area of present-day Hyderabad and Secunderabad came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate after the capture of Warangal, the Kakatiya capital. The modern city of Hyderabad was built and founded in 1592 by the Golconda Sultanate under Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah. The modern Secunderabad is also the site where the then Mughal emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur was defeated in the year 1754 by the Maratha Empire; the emperor arrived after the death of Nawab Anwaruddin Khan nearby at the Battle of Ambur in 1749. Anwaruddin Khan was the Nawab of Arcot.

Banner celebrating 200 years of Secunderabad

The area around Secunderabad changed hands among various rulers, and the area was part of Nizam's Hyderabad by the 18th century.

Modern Secunderabad was founded as a British cantonment after Nizam Asaf Jah II was defeated by the British East India Company. He was then forced to sign the 1798 Treaty of Subsidiary Alliance to get the favour of British troops camped in the village of Ulwul, north-east of Hussain Sagar, the lake that separates Secunderabad from its twin city Hyderabad. In 1803, Nizam Sikandar Jah, the third Nizam of Hyderabad, changed Ulwul's name to Secunderabad after himself. The city was formed in 1806, after the order was signed by the Nizam allotting the land north of Hussain Sagar to set up the British Cantonment. 

 Chennai, also known as Madras its official name until 1996, is the capital and largest city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost state of India. It is located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. According to the 2011 Indian census, Chennai is the sixth-most-populous city in India and forms the fourth-most-populous urban agglomeration. Incorporated in 1688, the Greater Chennai Corporation is the oldest municipal corporation in India and the second oldest in the world after London.

Historically, the region was part of the Chola, Pandya, Pallava and Vijayanagara kingdoms during various eras. The coastal land which then contained the fishing village Madrasapattinam, was purchased by the British East India Company from the Nayak ruler Chennapa Nayaka in the 17th century. The British garrison established the Madras city and port and built Fort St. George, the first British fortress in India. The city was made the winter capital of the Madras Presidency, a colonial province of the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent. After India gained independence in 1947, Madras continued as the capital city of the Madras State and present-day Tamil Nadu. The city was officially renamed as Chennai in 1996.

The city is coterminous with Chennai district, which together with the adjoining suburbs constitutes the Chennai Metropolitan Area, the 35th-largest urban area in the world by population and one of the largest metropolitan economies of India. Chennai has the fifth-largest urban economy and the third-largest expatriate population in India. Known as the gateway to South India, Chennai is amongst the most-visited Indian cities by international tourists and was ranked 36th among the most-visited cities in the world in 2019 by Euromonitor. Ranked as a beta-level city in the Global Cities Index, it was ranked as the second-safest city in India by National Crime Records Bureau in 2023.

Chennai is a major centre for medical tourism and is termed India's health capital. Chennai houses a major portion of India's automobile industry, hence the name Detroit of India. It was the only South Asian city to be ranked among National Geographic's Top 10 food cities in 2015 and ranked ninth on Lonely Planet's best cosmopolitan cities in the world. In October 2017, Chennai was added to the UNESCO Creative Cities Network UCCN list. It is a major film production centre and home to the Tamil-language film industry.

Etymology

See also: Names of Chennai in different languages

The name Chennai was derived from the name of Chennappa Nayaka, a Nayak ruler who served as a general under Venkata Raya of the Vijayanagara Empire from whom the British East India Company took the town in lease in 1639. The first official use of the name was in August 1639 in a sale deed to Francis Day of the East India Company. A land grant was given to the Chennakesava Perumal Temple in Chennapatanam later in 1646, which some scholars argue to be the first use of the name.

The name Madras is of native origin, and has been shown to have been in use before the British established a presence in India. A Vijayanagara-era inscription found in 2015 was dated to the year 1367 and mentions the port of Mādarasanpattanam, along with other small ports on the east coast, and it was theorized that the aforementioned port is the fishing port of Royapuram. Madras might have been derived from Madraspattinam, a fishing village north of Fort St. George.

In July 1996, the Government of Tamil Nadu officially changed the name from Madras to Chennai. The name Madras continues to be used occasionally for the city as well as for places or things named after the city in the past. 

 Pune Marathi: Puṇē, pronounced ˈpuɳe  POO-nay, previously spelled in English as Poona the official name until 1978, is a city in the state of Maharashtra in the Deccan Plateau in Western India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Pune district, and of Pune division. In terms of the total amount of land under its jurisdiction, Pune is the largest city in Maharashtra by area, with a geographical area of 516.18 km2, though by population it comes in a distant second to Mumbai. According to the 2011 Census of India, Pune has 7.2 million residents in the metropolitan region, making it the seventh-most populous metropolitan area in India. The city of Pune is part of Pune Metropolitan Region. Pune is one of the largest IT hubs in India. It is also one of the most important automobile and manufacturing hubs of India. Pune is often referred to as the Oxford of the East because of its educational institutions. It has been ranked the most liveable city in India several times.

Pune at different points in time has been ruled by the Rashtrakuta dynasty, Ahmadnagar Sultanate, the Mughals, and the Adil Shahi dynasty. In the 18th century, the city was part of the Maratha Empire, and the seat of the Peshwas, the prime ministers of the Maratha Empire. Pune was seized by the British East India Company in the Third Anglo-Maratha War; it gained municipal status in 1858, the year in which Crown rule began. Many historical landmarks like Shaniwarwada, Shinde Chhatri, and Vishrambaug Wada date to this era. Historical sites from different eras dot the city.

Pune has historically been a major cultural centre, with important figures like Dnyaneshwar, Shivaji, Tukaram, Baji Rao I, Balaji Baji Rao, Madhavrao I, Nana Fadnavis, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, Savitribai Phule, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Tarabai Shinde, Dhondo Keshav Karve, and Pandita Ramabai doing their life's work in Pune City or in an area that falls in Pune Metropolitan Region. Pune was a major centre of resistance to British Raj, with people like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Bal Gangadhar Tilak playing leading roles in struggle for Indian independence in their times.

Etymology

Further information: Puneri

The earliest reference to Pune is an inscription on a Rashtrakuta Dynasty copper plate dated 937 CE, which refers to the town as Punya-vishaya. By the 13th century, it had come to be known as Punawadi.

During the Rashtrakuta dynasty, the city was referred to as Punnaka and Punyapur. The copper plates of 758 and 768 CE show that the Yadava dynasty had renamed the city as Punakavishaya and Punya Vishaya. Vishaya means land, while Punaka and Punya mean holy. The city was known as Kasbe Pune when under the command of Maratha king Shivaji's father, Shahaji. Mughal emperor Aurangzeb renamed a small neighbourhood in central part of the old city as Muhiyabad the only divergent naming some time between 1703 and 1705 in memory of his great-grandson Muhi-ul-Milan, who died there. The name Muhiyabad was reverted soon after Aurangzeb's death. Anglicized to Poona in 1857 by the English during British rule, the city's name was changed to Pune in 1978.

History

Main article: History of Pune

Historical affiliations

 Maratha Empire 1674–1818

 Bombay Presidency 1818–1947

 Bombay State 1947–1960

 Maharashtra 1960–Present

Early and medieval period

The circular Nandi mandapa at the Pataleshwar cave temple built in the Rashtrakuta era 753–982

Copper plates dated 858 and 868 CE show that by the 9th century an agricultural settlement known as Punnaka existed at the location of the modern Pune. The plates indicate that this region was ruled by the Rashtrakuta dynasty. The Pataleshwar rock-cut temple complex was built during this era Pune was part of the territory ruled by the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri from the 9th century to 1327. Pune was under control of various Muslim sultanates until the late 1600s. 

 Nagpur is the largest and most populated city in central India. It is the second capital and the third-largest city of India's richest state, Maharashtra. Also known as the Orange City, Nagpur is the 13th largest city in India by population. According to an Oxford's Economics report, Nagpur is projected to be the fifth fastest growing city in the world from 2019 to 2035 with an average growth of 8.41. It has been proposed as one of the Smart Cities in Maharashtra and is one of the top ten cities in India in Smart City Project execution.

Nagpur is the seat of the annual winter session of the Maharashtra state assembly. It is a major commercial and political centre of the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. In addition, the city derives unique importance from being a key location for the Dalit Buddhist movement and the headquarters for the right-wing Hindu organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh RSS. Nagpur is also known for the Deekshabhoomi, which is graded an A-class tourism and pilgrimage site, the largest hollow stupa among all the Buddhist stupas in the world. The regional branch of the Bombay High Court is also situated within the city.

According to a survey by ABP News-Ipsos, Nagpur was identified as the best city in India topping in livability, greenery, Public Transport, and Health Care indices in 2013. The city was adjudged the 20th cleanest city in India and the top mover in the western zone as per Swachh Sarvekshan 2016. It was awarded as the best city for innovation and best practice in Swachh Sarvekshan 2018. It was also declared as open defecation free in January 2018 under Swachh Bharat Mission. It is also one of the safest cities for women in India. The city also ranked 25th in Ease of Living index 2020 among 111 cities in India. It was ranked the 8th most competitive city in the country by the Institute for Competitiveness for the year 2017.

It is famous for Nagpur oranges and is sometimes known as the Orange City for being a major trade centre of oranges cultivated in large part of the region.[34] It is also called the Tiger Capital of India or the Tiger Gateway of India as many tiger reserves are located in and around the city and also hosts the regional office of National Tiger Conservation Authority. The city was founded in 1702 by the Gond King Bakht Buland Shah of Deogarh and later became a part of the Maratha Empire under the royal Bhonsale dynasty. The British East India Company took over Nagpur in the 19th century and made it the capital of the Central Provinces and Berar. After the first re-organisation of states, the city lost its status as the capital. Following the informal Nagpur Pact between political leaders, it was made the second capital of Maharashtra.

Etymology

Nag River

Nagpur is named after the river Nag which flows through the city. The old Nagpur city today called Mahal is situated on north banks of the river Nag. Pur means "city" in many Indian languages.

History

Main article: History of Nagpur

See also: Nagpur state

One of the earlier names of Nagpur was Fanindrapura. It derives its origin from the Marathi word phaṇa transl. hood of a cobra. Nagpur's first newspaper was named Fanindramani, which means a jewel that is believed to be suspended over a cobra's hood. It is this jewel that lights up the darkness, hence the name of the newspaper. B. R. Ambedkar claimed that both the city and the river are named after the 'Nags' who were opponents of the Indo-Aryans. During British rule, the name of the city was spelt and pronounced as Nagpore. 

 Ashtavinayaka Marathi: अष्टविनायक is a Sanskrit term which means eight Ganeshas. The Ashtavinayaka Yatra refers to a pilgrimage to the eight Hindu temples in the state of Maharashtra, India, centered around the city of Pune. The eight temples house eight distinct idols of Ganesha, the Hindu deity of unity, prosperity, learning, and removing obstacles. Each of these temples has its own individual legend and history, as distinct from each other as the murtis in each temple. The form of each murti of Ganesha and his trunk are distinct from one another. There are other temples of eight Ganesha in various other parts of Maharashtra; however, the ones around Pune are more well known and visited. To complete the Ashtavinayaka Yatra, one must revisit the first temple after visiting all the eight temples.

The Ashtavinayaka Yatra is a pilgrimage covering these eight holy abodes of Ganesha in and around Pune and Raigad districts of Maharashtra. Out of these 8 Temples, 5 are in Pune district, 2 are in Raigad district and 1 is in Ahmednagar Ahilyanagar District. Ganesha is worshiped first before any other worship service is carried out to any other deity. The pilgrimage takes 3 days to complete. As per scriptures travel starts from Moreswar in Moregaon then Siddhivinayak temple of Siddhatek, Pali, Mhad, Theur Chintamani Ganesh in Pune, Lenyandri, Ojar, Ranjangaon then back to Moregaon where pilgrimage had started.

 Jejuri Marathi pronunciation: d͡ʒed͡zuɾiː is a city and a municipal council in the Pune district of Maharashtra, India. Khandoba Mandir is an important Hindu temple to the Hindu Lord Khandoba, one of the most visited tirtha holy places in Maharashtra.

Khandoba is a clan god for many Maharashtrian castes and communities, beloved as a god who grants wishes. His wives Mhalsa and Banai represent their caste groups, the Lingayat Vanya of Karnataka and the nomadic shepherds, the Dhangar tribe.

History

In 1739 Chimaji Appa, a general of the Maratha Empire and brother of Peshwa Bajirao, defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Vasai. After the war, Chimaji Appa and his Maratha soldiers took 38 church bells from there as memorabilia and installed them in 34 Hindu mandirs of Maharashtra. They installed one of these bells in Khandoba's mandir, where it remains to this day.

Khandoba temple

Koli Naiks

The Koli brothers Naik Hari Makati and Naik Tatya Makaji were revolutionaries from Maharashtra who revolted against the British Hukumat. With Naik Rama Krishna of Kalambai, they raised an army of Ramoshis from Satara and revolted. In 1879, their Ramoshi army raided Poona fifteen times, then Satara many times after that. In February 1879, Naik Hari Makaji attacked a portion of Bhimthadi in Baramati. On the eighth raid into Baramati, Naik Hari Makaji was attacked by British police, but escaped, fighting hand to hand with two British policemen. He wounded them, but two Ramoshis were captured. At the beginning of March, Hari Makaji again rose, revolted and raided Indapur and raided, but was captured in Solapur in mid-March. Tatya Makaji led his revolution until the end of the year, raiding villages on the Purandar and Sinhagad ranges.

On 17 October, Koli Naik Tatya Makaji and some of his followers killed a Ramoshi who was an informer for British Major Wise. After that, Tatya Makaji Naik was brought to justice.

Geography

Jejuri is located at 18.28°N 74.17°E. It has an average elevation of 718 metres

Demographics

As of 2011 India census, Jejuri had a population of 14,515. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Jejuri has an average literacy rate of 73, higher than the national average of 59.5: male literacy is 79%, and female literacy is 67. In Jejuri, 14 of the population is under 6 years of age.

Khandoba mandir

Main article: Khandoba Mandir

The Khandoba temple is located in Jejuri, which lies to the southeast of Pune in Maharashtra. The town is known for one of the most revered temples in the state, the Khandobachi Jejuri. The temple is dedicated to Khandoba, also known as Mhalsakant or Malhari Martand or Mylaralinga. Khandoba is regarded as the 'God of Jejuri' and is held in great reverence by the Dhangars. The temple was the site of a historic treaty between Tarabai and Balaji Bajirao on 14 September 1752.

Every Somavati Amavasya new moon that falls on a Monday, devotees of Khandoba gather at the Jejuri temple with tonnes of turmeric, smearing it on each other and throwing it around amid energetic singing and dancing. The temple-town is known as Sonyachi Jejuri golden Jejuri because of this colourful celebration.

 Panhala fort also known as Panhalgad and Panhalla literally the home of serpents, is located in Panhala, 20 kilometres northwest of Kolhapur in Maharashtra, India. It is strategically located, looking over a pass in the Sahyadri mountain range which was a major trade route from Bijapur in the interior of Maharashtra to the coastal areas. Due to its strategic location, it was the centre of several skirmishes in the Deccan involving the Marathas, the Mughals and the British the grand son's of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj East India Company, the most notable being the Battle of Pavan Khind. Here, the queen regent of Kolhapur, Tarabai Ranisaheb, spent her formative years. Several parts of the fort and the structures within are still intact. It is also called as the 'Fort of Snakes' as it is zigzagged in shape.

History

Lotus motif on Panhala of Raja Bhoj, who built the fort

Peacock motif on Panhala fort of the Adil Shah Sultanis

Panahala fort was built between 1178 and 1209 CE, one of 15 forts (others including Bavda, Bhudargad, Satara, and Vishalgad) built by the Shilahara ruler Bhoja II. It is said that aphorism Kahaan Raja Bhoj, kahan Gangu Teli is associated with this fort. A copper plate found in Satara shows that Raja Bhoja held court at Panhala from 1191–1192 CE. About 1209–10, Bhoja Raja was defeated by Singhana (1209–1247), the most powerful of the Devgiri Yadavas, and the fort subsequently passed into the hands of the Yadavas. Apparently it was not well looked after and it passed through several local chiefs. In 1376 inscriptions record the settlement of Nabhapur to the south-east of the fort.

It was an outpost of the Bahamanis of Bidar. Mahmud Gawan, an influential prime minister, encamped here during the rainy season of 1469. On the establishment of the Adil Shahi dynasty of Bijapur in 1489, Panhala came under Bijapur and was fortified extensively. They built the strong ramparts and gateways of the fort which, according to tradition, took a hundred years to build. Numerous inscriptions in the fort refer to the reign of Ibrahim Adil Shah, probably Ibrahim I 1534–1557.Under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Statue of Baji Prabhu Deshpande at Panhala

Statue of Veer Shiva Kashid at Panhala fort

In 1659, after the death of the Bijapur general Afzal Khan, in the ensuing confusion Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj took Panhala from Bijapur. In May 1660, to win back the fort from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Adil Shah II 1656–1672 of Bijapur sent his army under the command of Siddi Johar to lay siege to Panhala. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj fought back and they could not take the fort. The siege continued for 5 months, at the end of which all provisions in the fort were exhausted and Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was on the verge of being captured.

Under these circumstances, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj decided that escape was the only option. He gathered a small number of soldiers along with his trusted commander Baji Prabhu Deshpande and, on 13 July 1660, they escaped in the dead of night to flee to Vishalgad. Baji Prabhu and a barber, Shiva Kashid, who looked like Shivaji, kept the enemy engaged, giving them an impression that Shiva Kashid was actually Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. In the ensuing battle see Battle of Pavan Khin, almost three quarters of the one thousand strong force died, including Baji Prabhu himself. The fort went to Adil Shah. It was not until 1673 that Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj could occupy it permanently.

 Raigad, seen in the Raigad district of Maharashtra, India, is a hill fort located in the city of Mahad. It is one of the strongest fortresses on the Deccan Plateau and was historically referred to as Rairee or Rairy fort.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the Maratha ruler, along with his chief engineer Hiroji Indulkar, did the construction and development of various buildings and structures, including Raigad. In 1674, after being crowned the king of the Maratha Kingdom of the Konkan, Shivaji Maharaj chose Raigad as the capital of his Hindavi Swaraj.

Located at an elevation of 820 metres (2,700 ft) above its base and 1,356 m 4,449 ft above sea level within the Sahyadri mountain range, the fort offers views of the surrounding area. The fort was home to around 1,550 people having an average family size of 5 people. Accessing the fort requires ascending approximately 1,737 steps. Alternatively, visitors can opt for the Raigad Ropeway, an aerial tramway spanning 750 m 2,460 ft in length and reaching a height of 400 m 1,300 ft, which conveniently transports them from the ground to the fort in just four minutes.

Major features

The Maha Darwaja

The Samadhi of Rajmata Jijabai

The main palace was constructed using wood, of which only the base pillars remain. The main fort ruins consist of the queen's quarters, and six chambers, with each chamber having its private restroom. The chambers do not have any windows. In addition, ruins of three watch towers can be seen directly in front of the palace grounds out of which only two remain as the third one was destroyed during a bombardment. The fort also overlooks an artificial lake known as the Ganga Sagar Lake.

The only main pathway to the fort passes through the Maha Darwaja Great Door which was previously closed at sunset. The Maha Darwaja has two huge bastions on both sides of the door which are approximately 20–21 m 65–70 ft in height. The top of the fort is 180 m 600 ft above this door.

The king's court, inside the Raigad Fort, has a replica of the original throne that faces the main doorway called the Nagarkhana Darwaja. It faces the East Side. It was here where Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's Rajabhishek took place. This enclosure had been acoustically designed to aid hearing from the doorway to the throne. A secondary entrance, called the Mena Darwaja on the south side, was supposedly the private entrance for the royal ladies of the fort that lead to the queen's quarters. The convoy of the king and the king himself used the Palkhi Darwaja. on the north side. To the right of Palkhi Darwaja, is a row of three dark and deep chambers. Historians believe that these were the granaries for the fort.

From the fort, one can view the execution point called Takmak Tok, a cliff from which sentenced prisoners were thrown to their death. This area has been fenced off.

 Sinhagad also known as the Lion's Fort is an ancient hill fortress located at around 28 kilometres southwest of the city of Pune, India. Previously known as Kondhana, the fort has been the site of many battles, most notably the Battle of Sinhagad in 1670.

The fort is a popular weekend destination for the residents of Pune. A road directly leads up to the summit of the fort. Hikers can get access to the summit from the base of the fort, with the trek involving a one-way walk of 2.7 km 1.6 miles, gaining approximately 600 metres 1950 feet in elevation. Shared taxi services to the base as well as the summit are also available.

Layout

Perched on an isolated cliff of the Bhuleswar range in the Sahyadri Mountains, the fort is situated on a hill about 760 metres 2,490 ft above ground and 1,317 metres 4,321 ft above mean sea level. On clear day, other forts associated with the Maratha empire, such as Rajgad, Purandar and Torna, can be seen from Sinhagad.

Pune Darwaja of Sinhagad fort

Sinhagad was strategically built to provide natural protection from the enemies due to the very steep slopes of the hill it was built upon. There are two entry gates called Pune darwaja and Kalyan darwaja to get into fort. Pune darwaja is towards north east while the Kalyan darwaja is towards the southeast.

The fort houses memorials of the Maratha general, Tanaji Malusare as well as that of Rajaram I, the third Maratha Chhatrapati. The original commemorative memorial of Tanaji Malusare was unearthed by the restoration workers in February 2019. The stone structure was found buried under cement, concrete, and layers of oil paint and is believed to be around 350 years old. There is military stable, a brewery and a temple of the goddess Kali along with a Hanuman statue to the right side of the temple.

The fort also houses a television relay tower set up in 1973 for relaying signals from Mumbai Doordarshan TV to Pune. 

 Mount Everest known locally as Sagarmāthā in Nepal and Qomolangma in Tibet is Earth's highest mountain above sea level. It lies in the Mahalangur Himal sub-range of the Himalayas and marks part of the China–Nepal border at its summit. Its height was most recently measured in 2020 by Chinese and Nepali authorities as 8,848.86 m 29,031 ft 8+1⁄2 in.

Mount Everest attracts many climbers, including highly experienced mountaineers. There are two main climbing routes, one approaching the summit from the southeast in Nepal known as the standard route and the other from the north in Tibet. While not posing substantial technical climbing challenges on the standard route, Everest presents dangers such as altitude sickness, weather, and wind, as well as hazards from avalanches and the Khumbu Icefall. As of May 2024, 340 people have died on Everest. Over 200 bodies remain on the mountain and have not been removed due to the dangerous conditions.

Climbers typically ascend only part of Mount Everest's elevation, as the mountain's full elevation is measured from the geoid, which approximates sea level. The closest sea to Mount Everest's summit is the Bay of Bengal, almost 700 km (430 mi) away. To approximate a climb of the entire height of Mount Everest, one would need to start from this coastline, a feat accomplished by Tim Macartney-Snape's team in 1990. Climbers usually begin their ascent from base camps above 5,000 m (16,404 ft). The amount of elevation climbed from below these camps varies. On the Tibetan side, most climbers drive directly to the North Base Camp. On the Nepalese side, climbers generally fly into Kathmandu, then Lukla, and trek to the South Base Camp, making the climb from Lukla to the summit about 6,000 m 20,000 ft in elevation gain.

The first recorded efforts to reach Everest's summit were made by British mountaineers. As Nepal did not allow foreigners to enter the country at the time, the British made several attempts on the North Ridge route from the Tibetan side. After the first reconnaissance expedition by the British in 1921 reached 7,000 m 22,966 ft on the North Col, the 1922 expedition on its first summit attempt marked the first time a human had climbed above 8,000 m 26,247 ft and it also pushed the North Ridge route up to 8,321 m 27,300 ft. On the 1924 expedition George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made a final summit attempt on 8 June but never returned, leading to debate as to whether they were the first to reach the top. Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first documented ascent of Everest in 1953, using the Southeast Ridge route. Norgay had reached 8,595 m 28,199 ft the previous year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition. The Chinese mountaineering team of Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo, and Qu Yinhua made the first reported ascent of the peak from the North Ridge on 25 May 1960.

Name

The name Mount Everest was first proposed in this 1856 speech, later published in 1857, in which the mountain was first confirmed as the world's highest.

Mount Everest's Nepali/Sanskrit name is Sagarmāthā IAST transcription or Sagar-Matha सगर-माथा, sʌɡʌrmatʰa, lit. goddess of the sky, which means the head in the great blue sky, being derived from सगर sagar, meaning sky, and माथा māthā, meaning head.

The Tibetan name for Everest is Qomolangma  lit. holy mother. The name was first recorded in a Chinese transcription in the 1721 Kangxi Atlas, issued during the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi; it first appeared in the West in 1733 as Tchoumour Lancma, on a map prepared by the French geographer D'Anville and based on Kangxi Atlas. The Tibetan name is also popularly romanised as Chomolungma and in Wylie as Jo-mo-glang-ma.